万物简史英文版_比尔·布莱森-第16章

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another　arranged　the　tusks　so　that　they　curved　backwards　on　the　engaging　theory　that　thecreature　had　been　aquatic　and　had　used　them　to　anchor　itself　to　trees　while　dozing。　the　mostpertinent　consideration　about　the　incognitum；　however；　was　that　it　appeared　to　be　extinct鈥攁fact　that　buffon　cheerfully　seized　upon　as　proof　of　its　incontestably　degenerate　nature。

buffon　died　in　1788；　but　the　controversy　rolled　on。　in　1795　a　selection　of　bones　made　theirway　to　paris；　where　they　were　examined　by　the　rising　star　of　paleontology；　the　youthful　andaristocratic　georges　cuvier。　cuvier　was　already　dazzling　people　with　his　genius　for　takingheaps　of　disarticulated　bones　and　whipping　them　into　shapely　forms。　it　was　said　that　he　coulddescribe　the　look　and　nature　of　an　animal　from　a　single　tooth　or　scrap　of　jaw；　and　often　namethe　species　and　genus　into　the　bargain。　realizing　that　no　one　in　america　had　thought　to　writea　formal　description　of　the　lumbering　beast；　cuvier　did　so；　and　thus　became　its　officialdiscoverer。　he　called　it　a　mastodon　（which　means；　a　touch　unexpectedly；　鈥渘ipple…teeth鈥潱�。

inspired　by　the　controversy；　in　1796　cuvier　wrote　a　landmark　paper；　note　on　the　species　ofliving　and　fossil　elephants；　in　which　he　put　forward　for　the　first　time　a　formal　theory　ofextinctions。　his　belief　was　that　from　time　to　time　the　earth　experienced　global　catastrophes　inwhich　groups　of　creatures　were　wiped　out。　for　religious　people；　including　cuvier　himself；　theidea　raised　unfortable　implications　since　it　suggested　an　unaccountable　casualness　on　thepart　of　providence。　to　what　end　would　god　create　species　only　to　wipe　them　out　later？　thenotion　was　contrary　to　the　belief　in　the　great　chain　of　being；　which　held　that　the　world　wascarefully　ordered　and　that　every　living　thing　within　it　had　a　place　and　purpose；　and　always　hadand　always　would。　jefferson　for　one　couldn鈥檛　abide　the　thought　that　whole　species　would　everbe　permitted　to　vanish　（or；　e　to　that；　to　evolve）。　so　when　it　was　put　to　him　that　theremight　be　scientific　and　political　value　in　sending　a　party　to　explore　the　interior　of　americabeyond　the　mississippi　he　leapt　at　the　idea；　hoping　the　intrepid　adventurers　would　find　herdsof　healthy　mastodons　and　other　outsized　creatures　grazing　on　the　bounteous　plains。

jefferson鈥檚　personal　secretary　and　trusted　friend　meriwether　lewis　was　chosen　co…leader　andchief　naturalist　for　the　expedition。　the　person　selected　to　advise　him　on　what　to　look　out　forwith　regard　to　animals　living　and　deceased　was　none　other　than　caspar　wistar。

in　the　same　year鈥攊n　fact；　the　same　month鈥攖hat　the　aristocratic　and　celebrated　cuvier　waspropounding　his　extinction　theories　in　paris；　on　the　other　side　of　the　english　channel　a　rathermore　obscure　englishman　was　having　an　insight　into　the　value　of　fossils　that　would　also　havelasting　ramifications。　william　smith　was　a　young　supervisor　of　construction　on　the　somersetcoal　canal。　on　the　evening　of　january　5；　1796；　he　was　sitting　in　a　coaching　inn　in　somersetwhen　he　jotted　down　the　notion　that　would　eventually　make　his　reputation。　to　interpret　rocks；there　needs　to　be　some　means　of　correlation；　a　basis　on　which　you　can　tell　that　thosecarboniferous　rocks　from　devon　are　younger　than　these　cambrian　rocks　from　wales。　smith鈥檚insight　was　to　realize　that　the　answer　lay　with　fossils。　at　every　change　in　rock　strata　certainspecies　of　fossils　disappeared　while　others　carried　on　into　subsequent　levels。　by　noting　whichspecies　appeared　in　which　strata；　you　could　work　out　the　relative　ages　of　rocks　wherever　theyappeared。　drawing　on　his　knowledge　as　a　surveyor；　smith　began　at　once　to　make　a　map　ofbritain鈥檚　rock　strata；　which　would　be　published　after　many　trials　in　1815　and　would　bee　acornerstone　of　modern　geology。　（the　story　is　prehensively　covered　in　simonwinchester鈥檚　popular　book　the　map　that　changed　the　world　。）unfortunately；　having　had　his　insight；　smith　was　curiously　uninterested　in　understandingwhy　rocks　were　laid　down　in　the　way　they　were。　鈥渋　have　left　off　puzzling　about　the　origin　ofstrata　and　content　myself　with　knowing　that　it　is　so；鈥潯�he　recorded。　鈥渢he　whys　and　whereforescannot　e　within　the　province　of　a　mineral　surveyor。鈥�

smith鈥檚　　revelation　　regarding　　strata　　heightened　the　moral　awkwardness　concerningextinctions。　to　begin　with；　it　confirmed　that　god　had　wiped　out　creatures　not　occasionally　butrepeatedly。　this　made　him　seem　not　so　much　careless　as　peculiarly　hostile。　it　also　made　itinconveniently　necessary　to　explain　how　some　species　were　wiped　out　while　others　continuedunimpeded　into　succeeding　eons。　clearly　there　was　more　to　extinctions　than　could　beaccounted　for　by　a　single　noachian　deluge；　as　the　biblical　flood　was　known。　cuvier　resolvedthe　matter　to　his　own　satisfaction　by　suggesting　that　genesis　applied　only　to　the　most　recentinundation。　god；　it　appeared；　hadn鈥檛　wished　to　distract　or　alarm　moses　with　news　of　earlier；irrelevant　extinctions。

so　by　the　early　years　of　the　nineteenth　century；　fossils　had　taken　on　a　certain　inescapableimportance；　which　makes　wistar鈥檚　failure　to　see　the　significance　of　his　dinosaur　bone　all　themore　unfortunate。　suddenly；　in　any　case；　bones　were　turning　up　all　over。　several　otheropportunities　arose　for　americans　to　claim　the　discovery　of　dinosaurs　but　all　were　wasted。　in1806　the　lewis　and　clark　expedition　passed　through　the　hell　creek　formation　in　montana；　anarea　where　fossil　hunters　would　later　literally　trip　over　dinosaur　bones；　and　even　examinedwhat　was　clearly　a　dinosaur　bone　embedded　in　rock；　but　failed　to　make　anything　of　it。　otherbones　and　fossilized　footprints　were　found　in　the　connecticut　river　valley　of　new　englandafter　a　farm　boy　named　plinus　moody　spied　ancient　tracks　on　a　rock　ledge　at　south　hadley；massachusetts。　some　of　these　at　least　survive鈥攏otably　the　bones　of　an　anchisaurus；　whichare　in　the　collection　of　the　peabody　museum　at　yale。　found　in　1818；　they　were　the　firstdinosaur　bones　to　be　examined　and　saved；　but　unfortunately　weren鈥檛　recognized　for　what　theywere　until　1855。　in　that　same　year；　1818；　caspar　wistar　died；　but　he　did　gain　a　certainunexpected　immortality　when　a　botanist　named　thomas　nuttall　named　a　delightful　climbingshrub　after　him。　some　botanical　purists　still　insist　on　spelling　it　wistaria　。

by　this　time；　however；　paleontological　momentum　had　moved　to　england。　in　1812；　atlyme　regis　on　the　dorset　coast；　an　extraordinary　child　named　mary　anning鈥攁ged　eleven；twelve；　or　thirteen；　depending　on　whose　account　you　read鈥攆ound　a　strange　fossilized　seamonster；　seventeen　feet　long　and　now　known　as　the　ichthyosaurus；　embedded　in　the　steep　anddangerous　cliffs　along　the　english　channel。

it　was　the　start　of　a　remarkable　career。　anning　would　spend　the　next　thirty…five　yearsgathering　fossils；　which　she　sold　to　visitors。　（she　is　monly　held　to　be　the　source　for　thefamous　tongue　twister　鈥渟he　sells　seashells　on　the　seashore。鈥潱�　she　would　also　find　the　firstplesiosaurus；　another　marine　monster；　and　one　of　the　first　and　best　pterodactyls。　though　noneof　these　was　technically　a　dinosaur；　that　wasn鈥檛　terribly　relevant　at　the　time　since　nobody　thenknew　what　a　dinosaur　was。　it　was　enough　to　realize　that　the　world　had　once　held　creaturesstrikingly　unlike　anything　we　might　now　find。

it　wasn鈥檛　simply　that　anning　was　good　at　spotting　fossils鈥攖hough　she　was　unrivalled　atthat鈥攂ut　that　she　could　extract　them　with　the　greatest　delicacy　and　without　damage。　if　youever　have　the　chance　to　visit　the　hall　of　ancient　marine　reptiles　at　the　natural　history　museumin　london；　i　urge　you　to　take　it　for　there　is　no　other　way　to　appreciate　the　scale　and　beauty　ofwhat　this　young　woman　achieved　working　virtually　unaided　with　the　most　basic　tools　innearly　impossible　conditions。　the　plesiosaur　alone　took　her　ten　years　of　patient　excavation。

although　untrained；　anning　was　also　able　to　provide　petent　drawings　and　descriptions　forscholars。　but　even　with　the　advantage　of　her　skills；　significant　finds　were　rare　and　she　passedmost　of　her　life　in　poverty。

it　would　be　hard　to　think　of　a　more　overlooked　person　in　the　history　of　paleontology　thanmary　anning；　but　in　fact　there　was　one　who　came　painfully　close。　his　name　was　gideonalgernon　mantell　and　he　was　a　country　doctor　in　sussex。

mantell　was　a　lanky　assemblage　of　shortings鈥攈e　was　vain；　self…absorbed；　priggish；neglectful　of　his　family鈥攂ut　never　was　there　a　more　devoted　amateur　paleontologist。　he　wasalso　lucky　to　have　a　devoted　and　observant　wife。　in　1822；　while　he　was　making　a　house　callon　a　patient　in　rural　sussex；　mrs。　mantell　went　for　a　stroll　down　a　nearby　lane　and　in　a　pile　ofrubble　that　had　been　left　to　fill　potholes　she　found　a　curious　object鈥攁　curved　brown　stone；about　the　size　of　a　small　walnut。　knowing　her　husband鈥檚　interest　in　fossils；　and　thinking　itmight　be　one；　she　took　it　to　him。　mantell　could　see　at　once　it　was　a　fossilized　tooth；　and　aftera　little　study　became　certain　that　it　was　from　an　animal　that　was　herbivorous；　reptilian；extremely　large鈥攖ens　of　feet　long鈥攁nd　from　the　cretaceous　period。　he　was　right　on　allcounts；　but　these　were　bold　conclusions　since　nothing　like　it　had　been　seen　before　or　evenimagined。

aware　that　his　finding　would　entirely　upend　what　was　understood　about　the　past；　and　urgedby　his　friend　the　reverend　william　buckland鈥攈e　of　the　gowns　and　experimental　appetite鈥攖o　proceed　with　caution；　mantell　devoted　three　painstaking　years　to　seeking　evidence　tosupport　his　conclusions。　he　sent　the　tooth　to　cuvier　in　paris　for　an　opinion；　but　the　greatfrenchman　dismissed　it　as　being　from　a　hippopotamus。　（cuvier　later　apologized　handsomelyfor　this　uncharacteristic　error。）　one　day　while　doing　research　at　the　hunterian　museum　inlondon；　mantell　fell　into　conversation　with　a　fellow　researcher　who　told　him　the　tooth　lookedvery　like　those　of　animals　he　had　been　studying；　south　american　iguanas。　a　hastyparison　confirmed　the　resemblance。　and　so　mantell鈥檚　creature　became　iguanodon　；　aftera　basking　tropical　lizard　to　which　it　was　not　in　any　manner　related。

mantell　prepared　a　paper　for　delivery　to　the　royal　society。　unfortunately　it　emerged　thatanother　dinosaur　had　been　found　at　a　quarry　in　oxfordshire　and　had　just　been　formallydescribed鈥攂y　the　reverend　buckland；　the　very　man　who　had　urged　him　not　to　work　in　haste。

it　was　the　megalosaurus；　and　the　name　was　actually　suggested　to　buckland　by　his　friend　dr。

james　parkinson；　the　would…be　radical　and　eponym　for　parkinson鈥檚　disease。　buckland；　it　maybe　recalled；　was　foremost　a　geologist；　and　he　showed　it　with　his　work　on　megalosaurus。　in　hisreport；　for　the　transactions　of　the　geological　society　of　london　；　he　noted　that　the　creature鈥檚teeth　were　not　attached　directly　to　the　jawbone　as　in　lizards　but　placed　in　sockets　in　themanner　of　crocodiles。　but　having　noticed　this　much；　buckland　failed　to　realize　what　it　meant：

megalosaurus　was　an　entirely　new　type　of　creature。　so　although　his　report　demonstrated　littleacuity　or　insight；　it　was　still　the　first　published　description　of　a　dinosaur；　and　so　to　him　ratherthan　the　far　more　deserving　mantell　goes　the　credit　for　the　discovery　of　this　ancient　line　ofbeings。

unaware　that　disappointment　was　going　to　be　a　continuing　feature　of　his　life；　mantellcontinued　hunting　for　fossils鈥攈e　found　another　giant；　the