万物简史英文版_比尔·布莱森-第18章
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grateful。 in 1856 he became head ofthe natural history section of the british museum； in which capacity he became the drivingforce behind the creation of london鈥檚 natural history museum。 the grand and belovedgothic heap in south kensington； opened in 1880； is almost entirely a testament to his vision。
before owen； museums were designed primarily for the use and edification of the elite； andeven then it was difficult to gain access。 in the early days of the british museum； prospectivevisitors had to make a written application and undergo a brief interview to determine if theywere fit to be admitted at all。 they then had to return a second time to pick up a ticket鈥攖hat isassuming they had passed the interview鈥攁nd finally e back a third time to view themuseum鈥檚 treasures。 even then they were whisked through in groups and not allowed tolinger。 owen鈥檚 plan was to wele everyone； even to the point of encouraging workingmento visit in the evening； and to devote most of the museum鈥檚 space to public displays。 he evenproposed； very radically； to put informative labels on each display so that people couldappreciate what they were viewing。 in this； somewhat unexpectedly； he was opposed by t。 h。
huxley； who believed that museums should be primarily research institutes。 by making thenatural history museum an institution for everyone； owen transformed our expectations ofwhat museums are for。
still； his altruism in general toward his fellow man did not deflect him from more personalrivalries。 one of his last official acts was to lobby against a proposal to erect a statue inmemory of charles darwin。 in this he failed鈥攖hough he did achieve a certain belated；inadvertent triumph。 today his statue mands a masterly view from the staircase of themain hall in the natural history museum； while darwin and t。 h。 huxley are consignedsomewhat obscurely to the museum coffee shop； where they stare gravely over peoplesnacking on cups of tea and jam doughnuts。
it would be reasonable to suppose that richard owen鈥檚 petty rivalries marked the low pointof nineteenth…century paleontology； but in fact worse was to e； this time from overseas。 inamerica in the closing decades of the century there arose a rivalry even more spectacularlyvenomous； if not quite as destructive。 it was between two strange and ruthless men； edwarddrinker cope and othniel charles marsh。
they had much in mon。 both were spoiled； driven； self…centered； quarrelsome； jealous；mistrustful； and ever unhappy。 between them they changed the world of paleontology。
they began as mutual friends and admirers； even naming fossil species after each other；and spent a pleasant week together in 1868。 however； something then went wrong betweenthem鈥攏obody is quite sure what鈥攁nd by the following year they had developed an enmitythat would grow into consuming hatred over the next thirty years。 it is probably safe to saythat no two people in the natural sciences have ever despised each other more。
marsh； the elder of the two by eight years； was a retiring and bookish fellow； with a trimbeard and dapper manner； who spent little time in the field and was seldom very good atfinding things when he was there。 on a visit to the famous dinosaur fields of o bluff；wyoming； he failed to notice the bones that were； in the words of one historian； 鈥渓yingeverywhere like logs。鈥潯ut he had the means to buy almost anything he wanted。 although hecame from a modest background鈥攈is father was a farmer in upstate new york鈥攈is uncle was the supremely rich and extraordinarily indulgent financier george peabody。 when marshshowed an interest in natural history； peabody had a museum built for him at yale andprovided funds sufficient for marsh to fill it with almost whatever took his fancy。
cope was born more directly into privilege鈥攈is father was a rich philadelphiabusinessman鈥攁nd was by far the more adventurous of the two。 in the summer of 1876 inmontana while george armstrong custer and his troops were being cut down at little bighorn； cope was out hunting for bones nearby。 when it was pointed out to him that this wasprobably not the most prudent time to be taking treasures from indian lands； cope thought fora minute and decided to press on anyway。 he was having too good a season。 at one point heran into a party of suspicious crow indians； but he managed to win them over by repeatedlytaking out and replacing his false teeth。
for a decade or so； marsh and cope鈥檚 mutual dislike primarily took the form of quietsniping； but in 1877 it erupted into grandiose dimensions。 in that year a coloradoschoolteacher named arthur lakes found bones near morrison while out hiking with a friend。
recognizing the bones as ing from a 鈥済igantic saurian；鈥潯akes thoughtfully dispatchedsome samples to both marsh and cope。 a delighted cope sent lakes a hundred dollars for histrouble and asked him not to tell anyone of his discovery； especially marsh。 confused； lakesnow asked marsh to pass the bones on to cope。 marsh did so； but it was an affront that hewould never forget。
it also marked the start of a war between the two that became increasingly bitter；underhand； and often ridiculous。 they sometimes stooped to one team鈥檚 diggers throwingrocks at the other team鈥檚。 cope was caught at one point jimmying open crates that belonged tomarsh。 they insulted each other in print and each poured scorn on the other鈥檚 results。
seldom鈥攑erhaps never鈥攈as science been driven forward more swiftly and successfully byanimosity。 over the next several years the two men between them increased the number ofknown dinosaur species in america from 9 to almost 150。 nearly every dinosaur that theaverage person can name鈥攕tegosaurus； brontosaurus； diplodocus； triceratops鈥攚as found byone or the other of them。
1unfortunately； they worked in such reckless haste that they oftenfailed to note that a new discovery was something already known。 between them theymanaged to 鈥渄iscover鈥潯 species calleduintatheres anceps no fewer than twenty…two times。 ittook years to sort out some of the classification messes they made。 some are not sorted outyet。
of the two； cope鈥檚 scientific legacy was much the more substantial。 in a breathtakinglyindustrious career； he wrote some 1；400 learned papers and described almost 1；300 newspecies of fossil （of all types； not just dinosaurs）鈥攎ore than double marsh鈥檚 output in bothcases。 cope might have done even more； but unfortunately he went into a rather precipitatedescent in his later years。 having inherited a fortune in 1875； he invested unwisely in silverand lost everything。 he ended up living in a single room in a philadelphia boarding house；surrounded by books； papers； and bones。 marsh by contrast finished his days in a splendidmansion in new haven。 cope died in 1897； marsh two years later。
in his final years； cope developed one other interesting obsession。 it became his earnestwish to be declared the type specimen forhomo sapiens 鈥攖hat is； that his bones would be theofficial set for the human race。 normally； the type specimen of a species is the first set of1the notable exception being the tyrannosaurus rex； which was found by barnum brown in 1902。
bones found； but since no first set of homo sapiens bones exists； there was a vacancy； whichcope desired to fill。 it was an odd and vain wish； but no one could think of any grounds tooppose it。 to that end； cope willed his bones to the wistar institute； a learned society inphiladelphia endowed by the descendants of the seemingly inescapable caspar wistar。
unfortunately； after his bones were prepared and assembled； it was found that they showedsigns of incipient syphilis； hardly a feature one would wish to preserve in the type specimenfor one鈥檚 own race。 so cope鈥檚 petition and his bones were quietly shelved。 there is still notype specimen for modern humans。
as for the other players in this drama； owen died in 1892； a few years before cope ormarsh。 buckland ended up by losing his mind and finished his days a gibbering wreck in alunatic asylum in clapham； not far from where mantell had suffered his crippling accident。
mantell鈥檚 twisted spine remained on display at the hunterian museum for nearly a centurybefore being mercifully obliterated by a german bomb in the blitz。 what remained ofmantell鈥檚 collection after his death passed on to his children； and much of it was taken to newzealand by his son walter； who emigrated there in 1840。 walter became a distinguished kiwi；eventually attaining the office of minister of native affairs。 in 1865 he donated the primespecimens from his father鈥檚 collection； including the famous iguanodon tooth； to the colonialmuseum （now the museum of new zealand） in wellington； where they have remained eversince。 the iguanodon tooth that started it all鈥攁rguably the most important tooth inpaleontology鈥攊s no longer on display。
of course dinosaur hunting didn鈥檛 end with the deaths of the great nineteenth…century fossilhunters。 indeed； to a surprising extent it had only just begun。 in 1898； the year that fellbetween the deaths of cope and marsh； a trove greater by far than anything found before wasdiscovered鈥攏oticed； really鈥攁t a place called bone cabin quarry； only a few miles frommarsh鈥檚 prime hunting ground at o bluff； wyoming。 there； hundreds and hundreds offossil bones were to be found weathering out of the hills。 they were so numerous； in fact； thatsomeone had built a cabin out of them鈥攈ence the name。 in just the first two seasons； 100；000pounds of ancient bones were excavated from the site； and tens of thousands of pounds morecame in each of the half dozen years that followed。
the upshot is that by the turn of the twentieth century； paleontologists had literally tons ofold bones to pick over。 the problem was that they still didn鈥檛 have any idea how old any ofthese bones were。 worse； the agreed ages for the earth couldn鈥檛 fortably support thenumbers of eons and ages and epochs that the past obviously contained。 if earth were reallyonly twenty million years old or so； as the great lord kelvin insisted； then whole orders ofancient creatures must have e into being and gone out again practically in the samegeological instant。 it just made no sense。
other scientists besides kelvin turned their minds to the problem and came up with resultsthat only deepened the uncertainty。 samuel haughton； a respected geologist at trinity collegein dublin； announced an estimated age for the earth of 2；300 million years鈥攚ay beyondanything anybody else was suggesting。 when this was drawn to his attention； he recalculatedusing the same data and put the figure at 153 million years。 john joly； also of trinity； decidedto give edmond halley鈥檚 ocean salts idea a whirl； but his method was based on so manyfaulty assumptions that he was hopelessly adrift。 he calculated that the earth was 89 millionyears old鈥攁n age that fit neatly enough with kelvin鈥檚 assumptions but unfortunately not withreality。
such was the confusion that by the close of the nineteenth century； depending on whichtext you consulted； you could learn that the number of years that stood between us and thedawn of plex life in the cambrian period was 3 million； 18 million； 600 million； 794million； or 2。4 billion鈥攐r some other numb
