万物简史英文版_比尔·布莱森-第23章

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remarkably；　and　despite　his　findings；　when　the　twentieth　century　dawned　michelsoncounted　himself　among　those　who　believed　that　the　work　of　science　was　nearly　at　an　end；with　鈥渙nly　a　few　turrets　and　pinnacles　to　be　added；　a　few　roof　bosses　to　be　carved；鈥潯�in　thewords　of　a　writer　in　nature。

in　fact；　of　course；　the　world　was　about　to　enter　a　century　of　science　where　many　peoplewouldn鈥檛　understand　anything　and　none　would　understand　everything。　scientists　would　soonfind　themselves　adrift　in　a　bewildering　realm　of　particles　and　antiparticles；　where　things　popin　and　out　of　existence　in　spans　of　time　that　make　nanoseconds　look　plodding　and　uneventful；where　everything　is　strange。　science　was　moving　from　a　world　of　macrophysics；　whereobjects　could　be　seen　and　held　and　measured；　to　one　of　microphysics；　where　events　transpirewith　unimaginable　swiftness　on　scales　far　below　the　limits　of　imagining。　we　were　about　toenter　the　quantum　age；　and　the　first　person　to　push　on　the　door　was　the　so…far　unfortunatemax　planck。

in　1900；　now　a　theoretical　physicist　at　the　university　of　berlin　and　at　the　somewhatadvanced　age　of　forty…two；　planck　unveiled　a　new　鈥渜uantum　theory；鈥潯�which　posited　thatenergy　is　not　a　continuous　thing　like　flowing　water　but　es　in　individualized　packets；which　he　called　quanta。　this　was　a　novel　concept；　and　a　good　one。　in　the　short　term　it　wouldhelp　to　provide　a　solution　to　the　puzzle　of　the　michelson…morley　experiments　in　that　itdemonstrated　that　light　needn鈥檛　be　a　wave　after　all。　in　the　longer　term　it　would　lay　thefoundation　for　the　whole　of　modern　physics。　it　was；　at　all　events；　the　first　clue　that　the　worldwas　about　to　change。

but　the　landmark　event鈥攖he　dawn　of　a　new　age鈥攃ame　in　1905；　when　there　appeared　inthe　german　physics　journal　annalen　der　physik　a　series　of　papers　by　a　young　swissbureaucrat　who　had　no　university　affiliation；　no　access　to　a　laboratory；　and　the　regular　use　ofno　library　greater　than　that　of　the　national　patent　office　in　bern；　where　he　was　employed　as　atechnical　examiner　third　class。　（an　application　to　be　promoted　to　technical　examiner　secondclass　had　recently　been　rejected。）his　name　was　albert　einstein；　and　in　that　one　eventful　year　he　submitted　to　annalen　derphysik　five　papers；　of　which　three；　according　to　c。　p。　snow；　鈥渨ere　among　the　greatest　in　thehistory　of　physics鈥濃�攐ne　examining　the　photoelectric　effect　by　means　of　planck鈥檚　newquantum　theory；　one　on　the　behavior　of　small　particles　in　suspension　（what　is　known　asbrownian　motion）；　and　one　outlining　a　special　theory　of　relativity。

the　first　won　its　author　a　nobel　prize　and　explained　the　nature　of　light　（and　also　helped　tomake　television　possible；　among　other　things）。

3the　second　provided　proof　that　atoms　doindeed　exist鈥攁　fact　that　had；　surprisingly；　been　in　some　dispute。　the　third　merely　changedthe　world。

einstein　was　born　in　ulm；　in　southern　germany；　in　1879；　but　grew　up　in　munich。　little　inhis　early　life　suggested　the　greatness　to　e。　famously　he　didn鈥檛　learn　to　speak　until　he　wasthree。　in　the　1890s；　his　father鈥檚　electrical　business　failing；　the　family　moved　to　milan；　butalbert；　by　now　a　teenager；　went　to　switzerland　to　continue　his　education鈥攖hough　he　failedhis　college　entrance　exams　on　the　first　try。　in　1896　he　gave　up　his　german　citizenship　toavoid　military　conscription　and　entered　the　zurich　polytechnic　institute　on　a　four…year　coursedesigned　to　churn　out　high　school　science　teachers。　he　was　a　bright　but　not　outstandingstudent。

in　1900　he　graduated　and　within　a　few　months　was　beginning　to　contribute　papers　toannalen　der　physik。　his　very　first　paper；　on　the　physics　of　fluids　in　drinking　straws　（of　allthings）；　appeared　in　the　same　issue　as　planck鈥檚　quantum　theory。　from　1902　to　1904　heproduced　a　series　of　papers　on　statistical　mechanics　only　to　discover　that　the　quietlyproductive　j。　willard　gibbs　in　connecticut　had　done　that　work　as　well；　in　his　elementaryprinciples　of　statistical　mechanics　of　1901。

at　the　same　time　he　had　fallen　in　love　with　a　fellow　student；　a　hungarian　named　milevamaric。　in　1901　they　had　a　child　out　of　wedlock；　a　daughter；　who　was　discreetly　put　up　foradoption。　einstein　never　saw　his　child。　two　years　later；　he　and　maric　were　married。　inbetween　these　events；　in　1902；　einstein　took　a　job　with　the　swiss　patent　office；　where　hestayed　for　the　next　seven　years。　he　enjoyed　the　work：　it　was　challenging　enough　to　engage　hismind；　but　not　so　challenging　as　to　distract　him　from　his　physics。　this　was　the　backgroundagainst　which　he　produced　the　special　theory　of　relativity　in　1905。

called　鈥渙n　the　electrodynamics　of　moving　bodies；鈥潯�it　is　one　of　the　most　extraordinaryscientific　papers　ever　published；　as　much　for　how　it　was　presented　as　for　what　it　said。　it　hadno　footnotes　or　citations；　contained　almost　no　mathematics；　made　no　mention　of　any　workthat　had　influenced　or　preceded　it；　and　acknowledged　the　help　of　just　one　individual；　a3einstein　was　honored；　somewhat　vaguely；　〃for　services　to　theoretical　physics。〃　he　had　to　wait　sixteen　years；　till1921；　to　receive　the　award…quite　a　long　time；　all　things　considered；　but　nothing　at　all　pared　with　frederickreines；　who　detected　the　neutrino　in　1957　but　wasnt　honored　with　a　nobel　until　1995；　thirty…eight　years　later；　orthe　german　ernst　ruska；　who　invented　the　electron　microscope　in　1932　and　received　his　nobel　prize　in　1986；more　than　half　a　century　after　the　fact。　since　nobel　prizes　are　never　awarded　posthumously；　longevity　can　be　asimportant　a　factor　as　ingenuity　for　prizewinners。

colleague　at　the　patent　office　named　michele　besso。　it　was；　wrote　c。　p。　snow；　as　if　einstein鈥渉ad　reached　the　conclusions　by　pure　thought；　unaided；　without　listening　to　the　opinions　ofothers。　to　a　surprisingly　large　extent；　that　is　precisely　what　he　had　done。鈥�

his　famous　equation；　e　=mc2；　did　not　appear　with　the　paper；　but　came　in　a　brief　supplementthat　followed　a　few　months　later。　as　you　will　recall　from　school　days；　e　in　the　equation　standsfor　energy；　m　for　mass；　and　c2for　the　speed　of　light　squared。

in　simplest　terms；　what　the　equation　says　is　that　mass　and　energy　have　an　equivalence。

they　are　two　forms　of　the　same　thing：　energy　is　liberated　matter；　matter　is　energy　waiting　tohappen。　since　c2（the　speed　of　light　times　itself）　is　a　truly　enormous　number；　what　theequation　is　saying　is　that　there　is　a　huge　amount鈥攁　really　huge　amount鈥攐f　energy　bound　upin　every　material　thing。

4you　may　not　feel　outstandingly　robust；　but　if　you　are　an　average…sized　adult　you　willcontain　within　your　modest　frame　no　less　than　7　x　1018joules　of　potential　energy鈥攅nough　toexplode　with　the　force　of　thirty　very　large　hydrogen　bombs；　assuming　you　knew　how　toliberate　it　and　really　wished　to　make　a　point。　everything　has　this　kind　of　energy　trappedwithin　it。　we鈥檙e　just　not　very　good　at　getting　it　out。　even　a　uranium　bomb鈥攖he　mostenergetic　thing　we　have　produced　yet鈥攔eleases　less　than　1　percent　of　the　energy　it　couldrelease　if　only　we　were　more　cunning。

among　much　else；　einstein鈥檚　theory　explained　how　radiation　worked：　how　a　lump　ofuranium　could　throw　out　constant　streams　of　high…level　energy　without　melting　away　like　anice　cube。　（it　could　do　it　by　converting　mass　to　energy　extremely　efficiently　脿　lae　=mc2。）　itexplained　how　stars　could　burn　for　billions　of　years　without　racing　through　their　fuel。　（ditto。）at　a　stroke；　in　a　simple　formula；　einstein　endowed　geologists　and　astronomers　with　theluxury　of　billions　of　years。　above　all；　the　special　theory　showed　that　the　speed　of　light　wasconstant　and　supreme。　nothing　could　overtake　it。　it　brought　light　（no　pun　intended；　exactly）　tothe　very　heart　of　our　understanding　of　the　nature　of　the　universe。　not　incidentally；　it　alsosolved　the　problem　of　the　luminiferous　ether　by　making　it　clear　that　it　didn鈥檛　exist。　einsteingave　us　a　universe　that　didn鈥檛　need　it。

physicists　as　a　rule　are　not　overattentive　to　the　pronouncements　of　swiss　patent　officeclerks；　and　so；　despite　the　abundance　of　useful　tidings；　einstein鈥檚　papers　attracted　little　notice。

having　just　solved　several　of　the　deepest　mysteries　of　the　universe；　einstein　applied　for　a　jobas　a　university　lecturer　and　was　rejected；　and　then　as　a　high　school　teacher　and　was　rejectedthere　as　well。　so　he　went　back　to　his　job　as　an　examiner　third　class；　but　of　course　he　keptthinking。　he　hadn鈥檛　even　e　close　to　finishing　yet。

when　the　poet　paul　val茅ry　once　asked　einstein　if　he　kept　a　notebook　to　record　his　ideas；einstein　looked　at　him　with　mild　but　genuine　surprise。　鈥渙h；　that鈥檚　not　necessary；鈥潯�he　replied。

鈥渋t鈥檚　so　seldom　i　have　one。鈥潯�i　need　hardly　point　out　that　when　he　did　get　one　it　tended　to　begood。　einstein鈥檚　next　idea　was　one　of　the　greatest　that　anyone　has　ever　had鈥攊ndeed；　the　verygreatest；　according　to　boorse；　motz；　and　weaver　in　their　thoughtful　history　of　atomic　science。

4how　c　came　to　be　the　symbol　for　the　speed　of　light　is　something　of　a　mystery；　but　david　bodanis　suggests　itprobably　came　from　the　latin　celeritas；　meaning　swiftness。　the　relevant　volume　of　the　oxford　englishdictionary；　piled　a　decade　before　einsteins　theory；　recognizes　c　as　a　symbol　for　many　things；　from　carbonto　cricket；　but　makes　no　mention　of　it　as　a　symbol　for　light　or　swiftness。

鈥渁s　the　creation　of　a　single　mind；鈥潯�they　write；　鈥渋t　is　undoubtedly　the　highest　intellectualachievement　of　humanity；鈥潯�which　is　of　course　as　good　as　a　pliment　can　get。

in　1907；　or　so　it　has　sometimes　been　written；　albert　einstein　saw　a　workman　fall　off　a　roofand　began　to　think　about　gravity。　alas；　like　many　good　stories　this　one　appears　to　beapocryphal。　according　to　einstein　himself；　he　was　simply　sitting　in　a　chair　when　the　problemof　gravity　occurred　to　him。

actually；　what　occurred　to　einstein　was　something　more　like　the　beginning　of　a　solution　tothe　problem　of　gravity；　since　it　had　been　evident　to　him　from　the　outset　that　one　thing　missingfrom　the　special　theory　was　gravity。　what　was　鈥渟pecial鈥潯�about　the　special　theory　was　that　itdealt　with　things　moving　in　an　essentially　unimpeded　state。　but　what　happened　when　a　thingin　motion鈥攍ight；　above　all鈥攅ncountered　an　obstacle　such　as　gravity？　it　was　a　question　thatwould　occupy　his　thoughts　for　most　of　the　next　decade　and　lead　to　the　publication　in　early1917　of　a　paper　entitled　鈥渃osmological　considerations　on　the　general　theory　of　relativity。鈥�

the　special　theory　of　relativity　of　1905　was　a　profound　and　important　piece　of　work；　ofcourse；　but　as　c。　p。　snow　once　observed；　if　einstein　hadn鈥檛　thought　of　it　when　he　did　someoneelse　would　have；　probably　within　five　years；　it　was　an　idea　waiting　to　happen。　but　the　generaltheory　was　something　else　altogether。　鈥渨ithout　it；鈥潯�wrote　snow　in　1979；　鈥渋t　is　likely　that　weshould　still　be　waiting　for　the　theory　today。鈥�

with　his　pipe；　genially　self…effacing　manner；　and　electrified　hair；　einstein　was　too　splendida　figure　to　remain　permanently　obscure；　and　in　1919；　the　war　over；　the　world　suddenlydiscovered　him。　almost　at　once　his　theories　of　relativity　developed　a　reputation　for　beingimpossible　for　an　ordinary　person　to　grasp。　matters　were　not　helped；　as　david　bodanis　pointsout　in　his　superb　book　e=mc2；　when　the　new　york　times　decided　to　do　a　story；　and鈥攆orreasons　that　can　never　fail　to　excite　wonder�