万物简史英文版_比尔·布莱森-第53章

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dioactivewastes。鈥潯�this　wasn鈥檛　a　secret　assignment；　you　understand；　but　a　proud　public　boast。　in　fact；though　it　wasn鈥檛　much　publicized；　by　1957鈥�58　the　dumping　of　radioactive　wastes　had　alreadybeen　going　on；　with　a　certain　appalling　vigor；　for　over　a　decade。　since　1946；　the　united　stateshad　been　ferrying　fifty…five…gallon　drums　of　radioactive　gunk　out　to　the　farallon　islands；some　thirty　miles　off　the　california　coast　near　san　francisco；　where　it　simply　threw　themoverboard。

it　was　all　quite　extraordinarily　sloppy。　most　of　the　drums　were　exactly　the　sort　you　seerusting　behind　gas　stations　or　standing　outside　factories；　with　no　protective　linings　of　anytype。　when　they　failed　to　sink；　which　was　usually；　navy　gunners　riddled　them　with　bullets　tolet　water　in　（and；　of　course；　plutonium；　uranium；　and　strontium　out）。　before　it　was　halted　inthe　1990s；　the　united　states　had　dumped　many　hundreds　of　thousands　of　drums　into　aboutfifty　ocean　sites鈥攁lmost　fifty　thousand　of　them　in　the　farallons　alone。　but　the　u。s。　was　by　nomeans　alone。　among　the　other　enthusiastic　dumpers　were　russia；　china；　japan；　new　zealand；and　nearly　all　the　nations　of　europe。

and　what　effect　might　all　this　have　had　on　life　beneath　the　seas？　well；　little；　we　hope；　butwe　actually　have　no　idea。　we　are　astoundingly；　sumptuously；　radiantly　ignorant　of　lifebeneath　the　seas。　even　the　most　substantial　ocean　creatures　are　often　remarkably　little　knownto　us鈥攊ncluding　the　most　mighty　of　them　all；　the　great　blue　whale；　a　creature　of　suchleviathan　proportions　that　（to　quote　david　attenborough）　its　鈥渢ongue　weighs　as　much　as　anelephant；　its　heart　is　the　size　of　a　car　and　some　of　its　blood　vessels　are　so　wide　that　you　couldswim　down　them。鈥潯�it　is　the　most　gargantuan　beast　that　earth　has　yet　produced；　bigger　eventhan　the　most　cumbrous　dinosaurs。　yet　the　lives　of　blue　whales　are　largely　a　mystery　to　us。

much　of　the　time　we　have　no　idea　where　they　are鈥攚here　they　go　to　breed；　for　instance；　orwhat　routes　they　follow　to　get　there。　what　little　we　know　of　them　es　almost　entirely　fromeavesdropping　on　their　songs；　but　even　these　are　a　mystery。　blue　whales　will　sometimes　breakoff　a　song；　then　pick　it　up　again　at　the　same　spot　six　months　later。　sometimes　they　strike　upwith　a　new　song；　which　no　member　can　have　heard　before　but　which　each　already　knows。

how　they　do　this　is　not　remotely　understood。　and　these　are　animals　that　must　routinely　eto　the　surface　to　breathe。

for　animals　that　need　never　surface；　obscurity　can　be　even　more　tantalizing。　consider　thefabled　giant　squid。　though　nothing　on　the　scale　of　the　blue　whale；　it　is　a　decidedly　substantialanimal；　with　eyes　the　size　of　soccer　balls　and　trailing　tentacles　that　can　reach　lengths　of　sixtyfeet。　it　weighs　nearly　a　ton　and　is　earth鈥檚　largest　invertebrate。　if　you　dumped　one　in　a　normalhousehold　swimming　pool；　there　wouldn鈥檛　be　much　room　for　anything　else。　yet　no　scientist鈥攏o　person　as　far　as　we　know鈥攈as　ever　seen　a　giant　squid　alive。　zoologists　have　devotedcareers　to　trying　to　capture；　or　just　glimpse；　living　giant　squid　and　have　always　failed。　theyare　known　mostly　from　being　washed　up　on　beaches鈥攑articularly；　for　unknown　reasons；　thebeaches　of　the　south　island　of　new　zealand。　they　must　exist　in　large　numbers　because　theyform　a　central　part　of　the　sperm　whale鈥檚　diet；　and　sperm　whales　take　a　lot　of　feeding。

1according　to　one　estimate；　there　could　be　as　many　as　thirty　million　species　of　animalsliving　in　the　sea；　most　still　undiscovered。　the　first　hint　of　how　abundant　life　is　in　the　deepseas　didn鈥檛　e　until　as　recently　as　the　1960s　with　the　invention　of　the　epibenthic　sled；　adredging　device　that　captures　organisms　not　just　on　and　near　the　seafloor　but　also　buried　inthe　sediments　beneath。　in　a　single　one…hour　trawl　along　the　continental　shelf；　at　a　depth　of　justunder　a　mile；　woods　hole　oceanographers　howard　sandler　and　robert　hessler　netted　over25；000　creatures鈥攚orms；　starfish；　sea　cucumbers；　and　the　like鈥攔epresenting　365　species。

even　at　a　depth　of　three　miles；　they　found　some　3；700　creatures　representing　almost　200species　of　organism。　but　the　dredge　could　only　capture　things　that　were　too　slow　or　stupid　toget　out　of　the　way。　in　the　late　1960s　a　marine　biologist　named　john　isaacs　got　the　idea　tolower　a　camera　with　bait　attached　to　it；　and　found　still　more；　in　particular　dense　swarms　ofwrithing　hagfish；　a　primitive　eel…like　creature；　as　well　as　darting　shoals　of　grenadier　fish。

where　a　good　food　source　is　suddenly　available鈥攆or　instance；　when　a　whale　dies　and　sinks　tothe　bottom鈥攁s　many　as　390　species　of　marine　creature　have　been　found　dining　off　it。

interestingly；　many　of　these　creatures　were　found　to　have　e　from　vents　up　to　a　thousandmiles　distant。　these　included　such　types　as　mussels　and　clams；　which　are　hardly　known　asgreat　travelers。　it　is　now　thought　that　the　larvae　of　certain　organisms　may　drift　through　thewater　until；　by　some　unknown　chemical　means；　they　detect　that　they　have　arrived　at　a　foodopportunity　and　fall　onto　it。

so　why；　if　the　seas　are　so　vast；　do　we　so　easily　overtax　them？　well；　to　begin　with；　theworld鈥檚　seas　are　not　uniformly　bounteous。　altogether　less　than　a　tenth　of　the　ocean　isconsidered　naturally　productive。　most　aquatic　species　like　to　be　in　shallow　waters　where　thereis　warmth　and　light　and　an　abundance　of　organic　matter　to　prime　the　food　chain。　coral　reefs；for　instance；　constitute　well　under　1　percent　of　the　ocean鈥檚　space　but　are　home　to　about　25percent　of　its　fish。

elsewhere；　the　oceans　aren鈥檛　nearly　so　rich。　take　australia。　with　over　20；000　miles　ofcoastline　and　almost　nine　million　square　miles　of　territorial　waters；　it　has　more　sea　lapping　itsshores　than　any　other　country；　yet；　as　tim　flannery　notes；　it　doesn鈥檛　even　make　it　into　the　topfifty　among　fishing　nations。　indeed；　australia　is　a　large　net　importer　of　seafood。　this　isbecause　much　of　australia鈥檚　waters　are；　like　much　of　australia　itself；　essentially　desert。　（anotable　exception　is　the　great　barrier　reef　off　queensland；　which　is　sumptuously　fecund。）because　the　soil　is　poor；　it　produces　little　in　the　way　of　nutrient…rich　runoff。

even　where　life　thrives；　it　is　often　extremely　sensitive　to　disturbance。　in　the　1970s；　fishermenfrom　australia　and；　to　a　lesser　extent；　new　zealand　discovered　shoals　of　a　little…known　fishliving　at　a　depth　of　about　half　a　mile　on　their　continental　shelves。　they　were　known　as　orange1the　indigestible　parts　of　giant　squid；　in　particular　their　beaks；　accumulate　in　sperm　whales　stomachs　into　thesubstance　known　as　ambergris；　which　is　used　as　a　fixative　in　perfumes。　the　next　time　you　spray　on　chanel　no。　5（assuming　you　do）；　you　may　wish　to　reflect　that　you　are　dousing　yourself　in　distillate　of　unseen　sea　monster。

roughy；　they　were　delicious；　and　they　existed　in　huge　numbers。　in　no　time　at　all；　fishing　fleetswere　hauling　in　forty　thousand　metric　tons　of　roughy　a　year。　then　marine　biologists　madesome　alarming　discoveries。　roughy　are　extremely　long　lived　and　slow　maturing。　some　maybe　150　years　old；　any　roughy　you　have　eaten　may　well　have　been　born　when　victoria　wasqueen。　roughy　have　adopted　this　exceedingly　unhurried　lifestyle　because　the　waters　they　livein　are　so　resource…poor。　in　such　waters；　some　fish　spawn　just　once　in　a　lifetime。　clearly　theseare　populations　that　cannot　stand　a　great　deal　of　disturbance。　unfortunately；　by　the　time　thiswas　realized　the　stocks　had　been　severely　depleted。　even　with　careful　management　it　will　bedecades　before　the　populations　recover；　if　they　ever　do。

elsewhere；　however；　the　misuse　of　the　oceans　has　been　more　wanton　than　inadvertent。

many　fishermen　鈥渇in鈥潯�sharks鈥攖hat　is；　slice　their　fins　off；　then　dump　them　back　into　the　waterto　die。　in　1998；　shark　fins　sold　in　the　far　east　for　over　250　a　pound。　a　bowl　of　shark　finsoup　retailed　in　tokyo　for　100。　the　world　wildlife　fund　estimated　in　1994　that　the　numberof　sharks　killed　each　year　was　between　40　million　and　70　million。

as　of　1995；　some　37；000　industrial…sized　fishing　ships；　plus　about　a　million　smaller　boats；were　between　them　taking　twice　as　many　fish　from　the　sea　as　they　had　just　twenty…five　yearsearlier。　trawlers　are　sometimes　now　as　big　as　cruise　ships　and　haul　behind　them　nets　bigenough　to　hold　a　dozen　jumbo　jets。　some　even　use　spotter　planes　to　locate　shoals　of　fish　fromthe　air。

it　is　estimated　that　about　a　quarter　of　every　fishing　net　hauled　up　contains　鈥渂y…catch鈥濃�攆ishthat　can鈥檛　be　landed　because　they　are　too　small　or　of　the　wrong　type　or　caught　in　the　wrongseason。　as　one　observer　told　the　economist：　鈥渨e鈥檙e　still　in　the　dark　ages。　we　just　drop　a　netdown　and　see　what　es　up。鈥潯�perhaps　as　much　as　twenty…two　million　metric　tons　of　suchunwanted　fish　are　dumped　back　in　the　sea　each　year；　mostly　in　the　form　of　corpses。　for　everypound　of　shrimp　harvested；　about　four　pounds　of　fish　and　other　marine　creatures　aredestroyed。

large　areas　of　the　north　sea　floor　are　dragged　clean　by　beam　trawlers　as　many　as　seventimes　a　year；　a　degree　of　disturbance　that　no　ecosystem　can　withstand。　at　least　two…thirds　ofspecies　in　the　north　sea；　by　many　estimates；　are　being　overfished。　across　the　atlantic　thingsare　no　better。　halibut　once　abounded　in　such　numbers　off　new　england　that　individual　boatscould　land　twenty　thousand　pounds　of　it　in　a　day。　now　halibut　is　all　but　extinct　off　thenortheast　coast　of　north　america。

nothing；　however；　pares　with　the　fate　of　cod。　in　the　late　fifteenth　century；　the　explorerjohn　cabot　found　cod　in　incredible　numbers　on　the　eastern　banks　of　north　america鈥攕hallowareas　of　water　popular　with　bottom…feeding　fish　like　cod。　some　of　these　banks　were　vast。

georges　banks　off　massachusetts　is　bigger　than　the　state　it　abuts。　the　grand　banks　offnewfoundland　is　bigger　still　and　for　centuries　was　always　dense　with　cod。　they　were　thoughtto　be　inexhaustible。　of　course　they　were　anything　but。

by　1960；　the　number　of　spawning　cod　in　the　north　atlantic　had　fallen　to　an　estimated　1。6million　metric　tons。　by　1990　this　had　sunk　to　22；000　metric　tons。　in　mercial　terms；　thecod　were　extinct。　鈥渇ishermen；鈥潯�wrote　mark　kurlansky　in　his　fascinating　history；　cod；　鈥渉adcaught　them　all。鈥潯�the　cod　may　have　lost　the　western　atlantic　forever。　in　1992；　cod　fishingwas　stopped　altogether　on　the　grand　banks；　but　as　of　last　autumn；　according　to　a　report　innature；　stocks　had　not　staged　a　eback。　kurlansky　notes　that　the　fish　of　fish　fillets　and　fishsticks　was　originally　cod；　but　then　was　replaced　by　haddock；　then　by　redfish；　and　lately　bypacific　pollock。　these　days；　he　notes　drily；　鈥渇ish鈥潯�is　鈥渨hatever　is　left。鈥�

much　the　same　can　be　said　of　many　other　seafoods。　in　the　new　england　fisheries　offrhode　island；　it　was　once　routine　to　haul　in　lobsters　weighing　twenty　pounds。　sometimes　theyreached　thirty　pounds。　left　unmolested；　lobsters　can　live　for　decades鈥攁s　much　as　seventyyears；　it　is　thought鈥攁nd　they　never　stop　growing。　nowadays　few　lobsters　weigh　more　thantwo　pounds　on　capture。　鈥渂iologists；鈥潯�according　to　the　new　york　times；　鈥渆stimate　that　90percent　of　lobsters　are　caught　within　a　year　after　they　reach　the　legal　minimum　size　at　aboutage　six。鈥潯�despite　declining　catches；　new　england　fishermen　continue　to　receive　state　andfederal　tax　incentives　that　encourage　them鈥攊n　some　cases　all