心理学与生活-第105章

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Jim　Jones’　devotees　were　instructed　to　take　their　own　lives。　Seppuku；　or　hara…kiri；　was　practically　
obligatory　for　Japanese　nobility　and　samurai　when　their　failure　caused　loss　or　defeat　for　their　
emperor　or　lord。　Are　these　all　cases　of　suicide？　What　about　borderline　cases　of　self…destruction；　
such　as　neglecting　medical　advice　or　excessive　risk…taking　（e。g。；　driving　at　high　speeds；　
volunteering　for　dangerous　military　missions；　or　excessive　overeating）？　Even　more　plicated　
than　the　definition　of　a　mitted　suicide　is　the　definition　of　an　attempted　suicide。　
3。　Students　should　take　the　Suicide　Quiz。　
4。　Next；　the　instructor　should　read　through　the　10　items　and　take　a　“hand　count”　of　how　many　
students　believe　each　item　is　true　or　false。　In　actuality；　all　of　the　items　are　false　and　constitute　
mon　myths　about　suicide。　
5。　Next；　the　instructor　should　review　statistics　on　suicide　rates；　including　differences　according　to　
gender；　age；　race；　socioeconomic　status；　and　other　variables。　Minimally；　this　discussion　must　
include　the　10　items　that　pose　the　Suicide　Quiz。　For　example；　the　instructor　might　challenge　the　
class　to　explain　why　men　are　more　likely　to　mit　suicide　than　women　（Question　2）；　even　though　
women　attempt　suicide　two　or　three　times　more　often　than　men　（Question　1）。　The　answer　lies　in　the　
choice　of　method　（Question　3）；　men　choose　guns　whereas　women　choose　pills。　Alternatively；　the　
instructor　might　spend　time　countering　the　myth　that　people　who　periodically　mention　suicide　are　
not　likely　to　mit　it　（Question　10）。　This　could　prove　to　be　a　transition　for　discussion　of　what　to　do　
if　a　friend　or　family　member　has　been　talking　about　suicide。　
6。　Students　should　take　the　Suicide　Quiz　once　more；　this　time　read　aloud　by　the　instructor　with　a　
show　of　hands　whether　each　item　is　true　or　false。　It　should　then　bee　apparent　that　all　of　the　
items　were　myths；　and　the　class　has　learned　much　about　suicide　since　the　beginning　of　the　section。　
PITFALLS　TO　AVOID　

1。　Suicide　is　an　intensely　emotional　subject；　the　greatest　pitfall　any　discussion　leader　will　face　is　
underestimating　the　impact　this　topic　may　have　on　certain　students。　It　may　be　appropriate　to　give　
students　advance　warning　of　the　topic　and　the　option　to　excuse　themselves。　
2。　In　order　for　the　opening　discussion　to　work　well；　a　supportive　tone　must　be　set　so　that　students　feel　
fortable　sharing　personal　accounts。　The　instructor　may　also　want　to　make　clear　that　this　
information　should　not　be　shared　with　friends　outside　of　the　discussion　group。　
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3。　The　instructor　might　mention　this　topic　the　week　before　and　invite　students　who　want　to　discuss　
any　personal　experiences　regarding　suicide　among　family　or　friends　to　meet　with　him　or　her。　
4。　It　is　important　that　there　is　no　munication　while　students　take　the　Suicide　Quiz。　
DATA　ANALYSIS　AND　INTERPRETATION　

If　there　is　substantial　disagreement　over　the　correct　answers　during　the　initial　administration　of　the　Suicide　
Quiz；　it　may　prove　interesting　to　tabulate　the　percentage　of　students　for　each　item　who　believe　the　correct　
answer　is　true　versus　the　percentage　who　believe　the　item　is　false。　

DISCUSSION；　EXTENSIONS；　AND　EXPERIMENTAL　VARIATIONS　

1。　We　strongly　remend　acpanying　the　discussion　with　specific　suggestions　on　how　students　
should　respond　to　friends　or　family　members　at　high　risk　of　suicide。　If　the　instructor　does　not　feel　
qualified　to　lead　such　a　discussion；　it　might　be　possible　to　bring　in　an　outside　“expert。”　
2。　Of　all　the　discussion　sections；　the　one　on　suicide　involved　the　least　amount　of　direct　research…for　
good　reasons。　What　are　some　of　the　problems　that　face　suicide　researchers？　（Hint　for　students：　The　
annual　American　suicide　rate　is　12　out　of　every　100；000　people。）　
3。　If　the　campus　or　munity　operates　a　crisis　telephone　line；　the　instructor　might　arrange　a　field　trip　
for　interested　students　to　visit　the　facility　or　have　a　worker　as　a　guest　for　the　class。　
4。　For　instructors　with　some　experience　in　counseling；　one　interesting　variation　is　to　have　students　
role…play　callers　who　are　contacting　a　suicide　crisis　line。　Either　the　instructor　or　a　student　could　
role…play　the　telephone　counselor；　and　the　class　could　discuss　what　and　what　not　to　say　to　a　person　
who　is　having　a　crisis。　This　technique　works　especially　well　if；　after　particularly　interesting　
episodes；　the　role…played　action　is　“frozen”　for　detailed　discussion。　
5。　Discuss　“copy…cat”　suicides；　the　contagious　effect　of　media　on　facilitating　suicides。　
ADDITIONAL　RESOURCES　

Alverez；　A。　（1971）。　The　savage　God。　New　York：　Random　House。　

Barrington；　M。　R。；　&　Hendin；　H。　（1984）。　Can　suicide　be　rational？　In　J。　Rubinstein　&　B。　D。　Slife　（Eds。）；　Taking　
sides：　Clashing　views　on　controversial　social　issues。　（3rd　ed。）。　Guilford；　CT　Dushkin　Publishing　Group。　

Phillips；　D。　P。　（1986）。　Natural　experiments　on　the　effects　of　mass　media　violence　on　fatal　aggression：　Strengths　and　

weaknesses　of　a　new　approach。　In　L。　Berkowitz　（Ed。）；　Advances　in　experimental　social　psychology　（Vol。　19；　pp。　

207…250）。　Orlando；　FL：　Academic　Press　

Schneidman；　E。　（1985）。　Definition　of　suicide；　New　York：　Wiley　

Schneidman；　E。　（1987；　March）。　At　the　point　of　no　return。　Psychology　Today　pp。　54…58　

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HOW　MUCH　DO　YOU　KNOWABOUT　SUICIDE？　

Circle　the　letter　that　indicates　whether　the　following　statements　are　true　or　false。　

T　F　1。　Men　attempt　suicide　more　often　than　women。　
T　F　2。　Women　mit　suicide　more　often　than　men。　
T　F　3。　Poisoning；　by　either　pills　or　gas；　is　the　most　mon　form　of　
suicide。　
T　F　4。　Minorities　mit　suicide　more　often　than　whites。　
T　F　5。　The　higher　the　socioeconomic　level；　the　lower　the　suicide　rate。　
T　F　6。　After　about　60　years　of　age；　the　suicide　rate　begins　to　decline　
continuously。　
T　F　7。　Suicide　rates　for　college　students　reached　an　all…time　peak　in　
the　1960s　and　have　declined　somewhat　since　then。　
T　F　8。　Suicide　rates　are　lower　for　people　who　are　terminally　ill　than　
for　people　who　have　illnesses　with　no　end　in　sight。　
T　F　9。　Those　people　who　never　mention　suicide　are　more　likely　to　
actually　mit　the　act　than　individuals　who　occasionally　
discuss　it。　
T　F　10。　One　of　the　difficulties　in　predicting　suicides　is　that　they　are　
often　mitted　without　warning。　

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EVALUATION　AND　RESEARCH　ETHICS　

OBJECTIVES　

1。　To　acquaint　students　with　the　ethical　issues　surrounding　research　with　human　subjects。　
2。　To　consider　the　perspective　of　prospective　investigators　and　the　institutional　review　boards　that　are　
designed　to　minimize　or　prevent　harmful　research　procedures。　
3。　To　create　a　role…playing　situation　that　vividly　illustrates　the　review　process　for　use　of　subjects　in　
research。　
OVERVIEW　

The　same　research　procedures　that　can　lead　to　helpful　gains　in　knowledge　may　also　represent　a　source　of　
danger　to　the　individuals　who　serve　as　subjects。　The　power　of　the　researcher　and　of　the　scientific　
establishment　relative　to　that　of　their　subjects　has　been　balanced　in　recent　years　by　the　creation　of　
institutional　review　boards　（IRBs）。　These　peer　review　mittees　have　established　evaluation　procedures　
that　protect　the　welfare　of　human　and　animal　subjects。　How　does　evaluation　of　the　ethics　of　research　
operate？　What　is　the　process　by　which　an　individual　investigator　submits　a　research　proposal　to　a　
university　IRB　for　its　evaluation？　In　this　section　we　will：　

1。　Begin　by　discussing　instances　of　research　with　unacceptable　risks　and　questionable　ethics　（see　
Additional　Resources）。　
2。　Discuss　the　essential　concepts　of　“at　risk；”　“invasion　of　privacy；”　“deception；”　“informed　consent；”　
“the　gain/loss　notion　of　relative　ethics；”　and　the　raising　of　consciousness　about　ethical　
considerations。　
3。　Briefly　describe　the　review…evaluation　procedure　now　required　of　prospective　researchers　in　an　
academic　setting。　
4。　Briefly　describe　the　importance　to　society　of　promoting　scientific　progress　and　the　career　of　the　
individual　researcher　（in　order　to　establish　social　and　personal　values　that　oppose　“undesirable”　
constraints）。　
5。　Conduct　the　demonstrations　on　role…playing　in　which　students　take　both　sides　in　the　institutional　
evaluation　of　psychological　research　proposed　by　independent　investigators。　
GENERAL　INTRODUCTION　

Ethical　questions　often　arise　about　the　conduct　of　scientific　research　because　it　may　intervene　in　the　lives　of　
participants　who　are　subject　to　its　procedures…even　if　only　for　a　short　time。　Decisions　made　by　investigators　
solely　based　on　scientific　or　pragmatic　considerations　may　be　harmful　to　research　subjects。　The　subjects　are　
usually　not　in　a　position　to　have　advance　knowledge　of　what　will　be　done　to　them　or　to　refuse　exposure　to　
procedures　unacceptable　to　them。　Much　research　takes　place　in　institutional　settings　where　there　are　strong　
pressures　on　potential　subjects　to　ply　with　authorities；　such　as　in　prisons；　the　military；　factories；　
summer　camps；　schools；　and　colleges。　

Research　involving　human　subjects　raises　ethical　and　legal　issues　of　sufficiently　serious　and　widespread　
concern　that　a　prehensive　mechanism　has　been　developed　through　which　the　judgments　of　researchers　
are　reviewed。　Under　the　National　Research　Act　of　1974；　institutions　applying　for　funds　must　establish　an　
IRB　to　review　research　conducted　by　that　institution。　Of　course；　many　institutions　and　departments　already　
had　established　IRBs　prior　to　this　act；　including　most　psychology　departments；　which　supported　“Human　
Subject　mittees；”　to　review　psychological　research。　The　IRB’s　goals；　then；　are　to　determine　whether　
subjects　will　be　placed　at　risk；　and；　if　so；　whether　the　risks　are　outweighed　by　the　benefits　to　the　subject　and　
the　importance　of　the　knowledge　being　sought。　In　addition；　it　is　necessary　to　determine　if　the　rights　and　

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welfare　of　the　subjects　are　protected　and　if　“legally　effective　informed　consent”　will　be　obtained　by　adequate　
and　appropriate　means。　

The　purpose　of　the　evaluation　procedure　is　to　protect　the　welfare　of　human　subjects。　This　includes　
protection　against　undue　or　unnecessary　invasion　of　privacy；　disrespect　for　human　dignity；　and　physical；　
physiological；　or　social　harm。　

In　this　demonstration　we　want　students　to　discuss　research　ethics　by　having　them　participate　in　several　
role…playing　scenarios　in　which　experimenters　defend　their　proposals　before　an　IRB。　To　give　them　good　
material　to　work　with；　we　have　prepared　proposals　modified　from　several　experiments　that　have　proven　
over　the　years　to　generate　a　fair　amount　of　controversy。　

PROCEDURE　

Materials　

Four　research　proposal　summaries　of　relevant　parts　of　psychological　experiments。　Each　of　them　includes　
procedures　that　raise　questions　about　its　ethics。　The　proposals　are　based　on　research　by：　

1。　Sherif　and　associates　on　intergroup　conflict　among　children　in　a　summer　camp　（not　usually　
described　in　the　literature　as　ethically　questionable）。　
2。　Freedman　and　Fraser’s　foot…in…the…door　pliance　field　experiment。　
3。　Sheridan　and　King’s　modification　of　Milgram’s　obedience　study　
4。　Zimbardo’s　prison　simulation。　
Subjects　

15…25　students　are　ideal。　Four　are　selected　to　act　as　university　research