心理学与生活-第108章

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length　of　their　involvement；　and　the　means　for　ensuring　confidentiality　of　data　regarding　the　subjects。　
Please　avoid　any　technical　terms　not　readily　understood　by　individuals　outside　your　discipline。　You　do　not　
need　to　include　a　copy　of　your　plete　proposal；　but　please　do　include　copies　of　any　questionnaire　or　
structured　interviews　（if　any）。　

Some　specific　points　to　be　included　in　the　summary　are　the　following：　

Risk　or　Benefit　to　the　Subject　

This　is　a　major　concern　of　the　Panel—please　detail　any　deception；　possible　psychological　or　physical　risk　to　
the　subject；　and　benefit　（if　any）。　（Benefit　does　not　include　any　pensation　the　subject　may　be　given　for　
participation。）　

Projects　involving　deception　raise　certain　ethical　problems　often　best　dealt　with　by　debriefing　subjects　after　
their　participation。　Please　describe　your　debriefing　procedures。　If　you　choose　not　to　debrief；　this　decision　
must　be　justified　in　your　summary。　In　addition；　for　your　protection　as　well；　it　is　advisable　to　have　a　second　
consent　form　after　the　subject　is　debriefed；　reaffirming　permission　to　release　information　received　from　the　
subject　during　the　study。　

Description　of　Sample　Population　

This　should　include　where　the　study　will　take　place；　age　of　subjects；　the　number　of　subjects；　and　the　length　
of　involvement　time；　and　must　identify　precisely　the　type　of　subjects　if　other　than　normal。　

Description　of　the　Disclosure　of　Information　and　Consent　

A　consent　form　must　describe　the　project　in　nontechnical　language；　it　must　clearly　indicate　that　
participation　is　voluntary；　that　the　subject　is　free　to　withdraw　his/her　consent　and　discontinue　
participation　at　any　time；　and　that　individual　privacy　will　be　maintained　in　publication　of　any　data　
resulting　from　the　study。　

In　addition；　the　consent　form　must　include　the　name　and　telephone　number　of　the　researcher　as　a　contact　if　
further　information　is　sought　by　the　subject；　and　also　the　following　statement　（although　not　necessarily　this　
wording）：　“If　I　have　any　concerns　or　dissatisfaction　with　any　aspect　of　this　program　at　any　time；　I　may　
report　grievances–anonymously；　if　desired–to　the　Human　Subjects　Coordinator；　Sponsored　Projects　Office；　
Stanford；　CA　94305。”　A　copy　of　the　consent　form　should　be　given　to　the　subject。　

Projects　involving　children　often　require　a　consent　form　for　the　child　（especially　those　from　upper　
elementary　and　high　school　levels）　as　well　as　the　parent。　

Include　copies　of　consent　form（s）。　

To　request　review　of　your　protocol；　please　send　eight　copies　of　this　application　and　all　attachments　to：　

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RESEARCH　PROPOSAL　FORMAT　

All　proposals　must　follow　the　following　outlined　format。
Please　answer　the　questions；　identifying　each　by　number。　Please　type　all　responses。


1。　Describe　the　purpose　of　your　study　and　the　procedures　that　human　subjects　will　undergo　in　your　
research　design。　What　are　the　risks　and　possible　consequences　of　these　procedures？　
2。　Please　write；　using　nonprofessional　terms；　a　description　of　what　is　disclosed　to　a　subject
concerning　the　purpose　of　the　research　and　its　possible　risks。
3。　Describe　your　subject　population　and　your　method　for　obtaining　the　subjects’　informed　consent。　
Please　attach　a　sample　of　a　written　consent。　Also　indicate　briefly　where　and　how　these　consent　
forms　will　be　filed。　University　policy　dictates　that　they　be　retained　for　a　period　of　three　years　after　
the　conclusion　of　the　project。　
4。　If　personality　tests；　questionnaires；　or　inventories　are　to　be　administered；　describe　the　reason　for　
their　use；　the　manner　in　which　they　will　be　given；　and　the　information　to　be　given　to　the　subjects　
about　obtained　scores。　How　will　you　ensure　confidentiality　of　the　findings　from　this　research？　
5。　If　your　response　to　any　of　the　following　is　affirmative；　please　explain。　
。　Will　deception　be　used　in　any　aspect　of　the　subject’s　relation　to　the　research？　YES___　
NO___　
。　Will　any　stimulus　or　other　conditions　be　imposed　on　subjects；　or　any　response　be　required　
of　them；　that　could　possibly　pose　a　physical　risk？　YES___　NO___　
。　Will　any　personality　tests；　questionnaires；　or　inventories　be　administered？　YES___　NO___　
Note：　The　proposals　already　submitted　for　student　reviewers　to　evaluate　are　not　in　that　format　but　will　be　
accepted　for　review　here　because　they　were　prepared　prior　to　this　memo。　

GUIDE　TO　REVIEW…EVALUATION　ANALYSIS　

1。　For　each　proposal；　decide　whether　it　should　be：　
。　Approved　as　is　
。　Approved　with　minor　changes　（noted）　
。　Denied　approval　until　major　changes　are　made　in　the　design　and　procedure　
。　Denied　approval　pending　pilot　study　evaluation　on　following　questionable　issues　
。　Rejected　in　principle　
2。　Detail　specific　benefits/risks；　gains/losses　if　each　study　is　conducted　or　refused　permission。　
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CLINICAL　INTERVENTIONS　

OBJECTIVES　

1。　To　illustrate　some　of　the　differences　and　similarities　between　alternative　approaches　to
psychotherapy。
2。　To　encourage　thinking　about　the　forms　of　therapy　that　are　most　appropriate　for　different　types　of　
mental　disorders。　
3。　To　demonstrate　the　kind　of　information…gathering　process　that　is　involved　in　a　clinical　interview　of　
a　prospective　client　by　a　therapist。　
OVERVIEW　

Individuals　who　seek　help　for　the　problems　caused　by　their　mental　disorders　or　behavioral　malfunctioning　
may　be　treated　differently　depending　on　the　type　of　therapeutic　approach　practiced　by　their　therapist。　The　
same　therapist　may　proceed　differently　depending　on　the　presenting　symptoms　or　behavioral　problems　of　
the　client/patient。　How　different　are　the　approaches　of　therapists　who　have　different　psychological　
orientations？　How　are　therapeutic　strategies　varied　according　to　the　nature　of　the　problem　to　be　treated　or　
modified？　In　this　section　we　will：　

1。　Begin　by　discussing　the　goals　of　psychotherapy　in　general　and　some　of　the　specific　objectives　of　the　
major　psychological　approaches　to　therapy。　
2。　Discuss　the　goals　that　a　person　with　psychological　problems　might　have　in　seeking　therapy；　ask　
students　what　they　would　expect　from　therapy。　
3。　Mention　issues　of　the　high　cost　of　therapy；　the　time　required；　problems　of　therapist—client　“fit；”　
definitions　of　the　client’s　“problem；”　and　determination　of　when　therapy　has　succeeded　or　failed。　
4。　Review　basic　aspects　of　therapy　based　on　behavioristic；　psychodynamic；　and　humanistic
principles。
5。　Conduct　the　demonstration　on　role…playing　a　clinical　interaction。　
GENERAL　INTRODUCTION　

The　decision　a　clinical　psychologist　or　psychiatrist　must　make　in　prescribing　the　kind　of　therapy　a　patient　
should　receive；　or　even　whether　he　or　she　should　be　given　any　at　all；　is　a　plex　one。　We　tend　to　think　of　it　
as　following　in　a　rather　straightforward　way　from　analysis　of　the　“facts”；　or　the　patient’s　problems。　This　is　
rarely；　if　ever；　true。　

The　decision　regarding　the　tactics　of　therapeutic　intervention　depends　on：　

1。　The　therapist’s　interpretation　of　the　facts。　
2。　The　therapist’s　type　of　training　and　orientation。　This；　in　turn；　influences　his　or　her　definition　of　
what　constitutes　behavior　pathology　and　also　determines　what　behavior　and　casual　relations　he　or　
she　will　focus　on　（or　even　notice）。　Moreover；　the　therapist　is　usually　trained　to　administer　only　a　
limited　brand　of　therapy。　The　therapist’s　values　about　who　should　be　helped　（the　young　or　the　old；　
men　or　women；　influential　people　or　ordinary　ones；　those　with　mild　problems　or　those　with　severe　
ones；　rich　people　or　poor　ones；　attractive　people　or　unattractive　ones；　interesting　people　or　
uninteresting　ones；　etc。）。　
3。　The　therapist’s　attitudes　about　what　behavior　is　desirable。　Should　homosexuals　be　turned　into　
heterosexuals？　Should　pacifists　be　made　more　aggressive　so　people　won’t　“step　on　them”？　Should　
patients　be　calm　and　manageable　or　allowed　to　be　active　and　self…directing？　These　questions　
involve　judgments　that　are　not　scientific。　
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4。　The　available　resources　and　the　petition　for　them。　For　example；　with　a　large　patient　population　
and　a　small　staff；　intensive　psychoanalysis　may　not　be　possible。　
5。　The　patient’s　apparent　level　of　motivation；　past　history　or　therapy；　and　other　attributes。　In　addition；　
the　environment　in　which　the　patient　lives　or　to　which　he　or　she　will　return　may　also　play　a　role　in　
the　type　of　treatment　instituted。　
6。　Whether　the　therapy　takes　place　on　an　“outpatient”　basis；　an　“inpatient’　basis；　within　a　clinical　or　
mental　hospital　institution；　or　a　“halfway…patient”　basis　in　a　halfway　house　setting。　
PROCEDURE　

Materials　

Therapeutic　Intervention　Coding　Form
Students　selected　to　act　as　therapists　read　the　chapter　of　Psychology　and　Life　relevant　to　their　“specialty。”


Subjects　

10—20　students　are　ideal；　1　or　2　students　to　enact　each　of　the　two　or　three　different　therapist　roles；　2　
students　to　enact　the　client　roles；　and　the　rest　of　the　class　to　act　as　observers　and　recorders　of　the　interaction。　

Time　Required　for　Research　

At　least　45　minutes　（5　minutes　for　each　of　six　interviews　and　10　minutes　for　summarizing　data　analysis）。　

Time　Required　for　Discussion　

10—30　minutes。　

Method　

1。　Select　three　students　a　week　in　advance　of　the　class　meeting　and　assign　the　following　therapist　
roles：　behavioral；　psychoanalytic；　and　humanist。　（You　may　assign　more　than　one　student　to　each　
approach　if　you　would　like　them　to　work　in　teams。）　Have　them　study　the　relevant　material　in　the　
text　and　give　them　some　supplementary　material　on　the　three　types　of　therapy。　Have　them　prepare　
their　strategy　for　interviewing　the　“clients”　they　will　see　in　class　meetings。　
2。　To　facilitate　the　interviews；　you　may　wish　to　have　the　therapists　prepare　questions　they　will　ask　
their　clients。　
3。　Select　two　or　more　students　prior　to　the　beginning　of　the　class　meeting　and　ask　them　to　play　the　role　
of　client。　We　suggest　that　you　use　DSM…IV　case　summaries；　but　other　descriptions　of　patients　could　
also　be　used。　Have　these　students　study　their　case　histories　and　prepare　themselves　to　play　the　role　
of　a　client　who　is　seeking　professional　help。　Obviously；　they　may　be　asked　for　information　that　is　
not　actually　given　in　the　summary。　Explain　to　the　students　that　they　should　feel　free　to　fabricate　
details　that　are　consistent　with　the　role　they　will　be　playing。　Alternatively；　you　may　play　the　client　
role。　
4。　Each　therapist　or　therapist　team　may　interview　one　or　both　clients。　
5。　Clients　are　instructed　to　role…play　being　phobic　or　depressed。　
6。　To　ensure　that　the　therapists　will　be　maximally　different　in　style　and　content；　it　is　helpful　to　ask　
them　to　wait　outside　of　the　classroom　until　they　have　conducted　an　interview。　After　conducting　an　
interview；　the　therapist　could　then　remain　in　the　class　and　observe　his　or　her　colleagues。　
7。　Each　therapist　should　also　prepare　a　brief　assessment　of　the　patient　and　remendations　for　
treatment。　These　could　be　read　to　the　class　after　everyone　has　been　interviewed。　
8。　Be　sure　all　parties　are　aware　of　the　time　constraints　of　this　brief　“initial”　interview。　
9。　Have　the　other　class　members　actively　participate　as　observers　by　coding　the　therapist’s　questions　
（to　be　de