心理学与生活-第15章

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more　influential　figures　in　social　psychology；　including　Philip　Zimbardo；　Albert　Bandura；　Stanley　
Milgram；　and　Gordon　Allport。　

Hergenhahn；　B。　R。　（1997）。　An　Introduction　to　the　History　of　Psychology；　3rd　Edition。　Belmont；　CA：　Wadsworth　
Publishing。　A　very　thorough　undergraduate　text　on　the　history　of　psychology；　including　its　roots　in　
classical　thought　and　philosophy。　

Psychological　Review；　101　（2）；　Special　Issue：　The　Centennial　Issue　of　the　Psychological　Review。　American　
Psychological　Association；　1994。　Contains　reprints　of　the　most　influential　articles　ever　to　appear　in　
Psychological　Review。　It　is　an　invaluable　archival　document　for　all　psychologists。　

Scarborough；　E。；　&　Forumoto；　L。　（1987）。　Untold　Lives：　The　First　Generation　of　Women　Psychologists。　New　York：　
Columbia　University　Press。　A　pelling　portrayal　of　the　lives　and　contributions　of　early　women　
psychologists。　

Schwartz；　S。　（1986）。　Classic　Studies　in　Psychology。　Palo　Alto；　CA：　Mayfield。　Presentation　of　fifteen　of　the　most　
significant　studies　in　psychology　in　condensed　but　clear　summaries。　

Van　Doren；　C。　（1991）。　A　History　of　Knowledge。　The　Pivotal　Events；　People；　and　Achievements　of　World　History。　
New　York：　Ballantine　Books。　An　excellent　review　of　the　important　ideas；　events；　and　people　throughout　
history；　written　by　an　ex…editor　of　Encyclopedia　Britannica。　

DISCOVERING　PSYCHOLOGY　

PROGRAM　1：　PAST；　PRESENT；　AND　PROMISE　
Overview　

An　introduction　to　and　an　overview　of　psychology；　touching　on　a　range　of　issues　from　the　origins　of　
psychology　as　a　science　to　psychopathology；　from　the　biochemistry　of　the　brain　to　applied　research。　

Key　Issues　

Public　versus　private　behavior；　the　nature　of　prejudice；　the　P300　brain　wave；　the　biology　of　racism；　
molecular　versus　molar　levels　of　analysis；　and　the　origins　of　psychology。　

Archival　Demonstrations　

Demonstration　of　a　client　with　Multiple　Personality　Disorder。
Candid　Camera　clip　demonstrating　the　difference　between　public　and　private　behavior。


Archival　Interviews　

Emanuel　Donchin　examines　the　relationship　between　P300　brain　waves　and　surprise。
Robert　Rosenthal　discusses　body　language。


New　Interviews　

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PSYCHOLOGY　AND　LIFE　

Christine　Ijima　Hall　considers　the　nature　of　prejudice。　

FILMS　AND　VIDEOS　

Career　Encounters　in　Psychology　（1991）。　American　Psychological　Association；　30　minutes　

Several　psychologists　from　diverse　subfields　discuss　their　work　and　careers。　

Landmarks　in　Psychology　

Highlights　the　contributions　of　Freud；　Jung；　Adler；　Pavlov；　Sullivan；　Homey；　Maslow；　Watson；　and　

Skinner。　Using　historical　narrative　and　case　study　dramatizations；　the　interpersonal；　behavioral；　

humanistic；　and　existential　approaches　to　psychology　are　explored。　

CASE　STUDY　LECTURE　LAUNCHER　

Case　Study　Lecture　Enhancers　originally　appeared　in　Psychology　and　Life；　13th　Edition　as　openings　for　
each　chapter。　They　were　subsequently　omitted　from　the　14th　edition　to　save　space。　The　best　of　them　are　
included　here；　because　both　instructors　and　students　expressed　an　interest　in　using　them　again。　This　
material　is　ideal　for　starting　a　lecture　or　for　use　as　a　major　transition　within　a　lecture。　

As　the　runners　lined　up　to　start　the　1986　NCAA　10；000…meter　championship；　Kathy　O。　was　the　odds…on　
favorite。　She　had　broken　high　school　track　records　in　three　distances　and　recently　set　a　new　American　
collegiate　record　for　the　10；000…meter　race。　Her　parents；　who　were　always　supportive　fans；　watched　from　the　
sidelines。　Kathy　got　off　to　a　slow　start；　but　was　only　a　few　paces　behind　the　leaders。　Her　fans　knew　she　
could　soon　catch　up。　However；　this　time　Kathy　did　not　bolt　to　the　lead　as　she　had　done　before。　Instead；　she　
veered　away　from　the　other　runners。　Without　breaking　her　stride；　she　ran　off　the　track；　scaled　a　7…foot　fence；　
raced　down　a　side　street；　and　jumped　off　a　50…foot　bridge。　Ten　minutes　later；　her　coach　found　her　on　the　
concrete　flood　plain　of　the　White　River。　She　had　two　broken　ribs；　a　punctured　lung；　and　was　paralyzed　from　
the　waist　down。　Not　only　would　she　never　run　again；　she　might　never　walk　again。　

What　happened　to　Kathy？　Why　did　she　quit　the　race　and　nearly　self…destruct？　As　a　star　athlete　and　
premedical　student　on　the　Dean’s　list；　she　had　everything　going　for　her。　She　had　been　valedictorian　of　her　
high　school　class。　Teachers　and　coaches　described　her　as　sweet；　sensible；　diligent；　courteous；　and　religious。　
Nobody　understood　her　behavior。　It　did　not　make　sense。　Kathy’s　father　thought　the　tragedy　“had　something　
to　do　with　the　pressure　that　is　put　on　young　people　to　succeed。”　Teammates　felt　the　pressure　may　have　e　
from　within　Kathy　herself　“She　was　a　perfectionist；”　said　one　of　them。　Determined　to　excel　at　everything；　
Kathy　had　studied　relentlessly；　even　during　team　workouts。　

How　did　Kathy　explain　her　actions？　She　told　an　interviewer　that　she　was　overe　by　the　terrifying　fear　of　
failure　as　she　began　falling　behind　in　the　race。　“All　of　a　sudden　。。。　I　just　felt　like　something　snapped　inside　of　
me。”　She　felt　angry　and　persecuted。　These　negative　reactions　were　new　to　Kathy；　and　made　her　feel　as　if　she　
were　someone　else。　“I　just　wanted　to　run　away；”　she　recalled。　“I　don’t　see　how　I　climbed　that　fence。。。。　I　just　
don’t　feel　like　that　person　was　me。　I　know　that　sounds　strange；　but　I　was　just　out　of　control。。。。　I　was　
watching　everything　that　was　happening　and　I　couldn’t　stop”　（UPI；　12/22/86）。　

The　case　of　Kathy　O。　raises　fascinating　questions　for　psychology。　Personality；　social；　and　developmental　
psychologists　might　ask　how　athletic　ability；　intelligence；　parental　support；　petition；　motivation　to　
achieve；　and　personality　traits　bined　to　make　Kathy　a　superstar　in　the　first　place。　Clinical　psychologists　
would　want　to　know　why　something　snapped　in　Kathy　at　this　race；　why　feelings　of　anger　were　so　foreign　to　
her；　and　why　she　felt　persecuted。　Those　who　study　the　nature　of　consciousness　would　try　to　understand　
Kathy’s　perception　that　she　was　outside　of　herself；　unable　to　stop　her　flight　toward　death。　Health　
psychologists　and　those　who　work　in　the　area　of　sports　psychology　might　try　to　identify　signs　of　stress　and　
clues　in　earlier　behaviors　that　could　have　signaled　an　impending　breakdown。　Psychologists　who　
emphasize　the　biological　basis　of　behavior　might　consider　the　role　of　brain　and　hormonal　factors　in　her　

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CHAPTER　1：　THE　SCIENCE　OF　PSYCHOLOGY　IN　YOUR　LIFE　

sudden；　abnormal　reaction。　Are　there　any　circumstances　under　which　you　might　quit　as　Kathy　O。　did？　

We　may　never　pletely　understand　what　motivated　Kathy’s　behavior；　but　psychology　provides　the　
tools—research　methods—and　the　scaffolding—theories　about　the　causes　of　behavior—for　exploring　basic　
questions　about　who　we　are　and　why　we　think；　feel；　and　act　as　we　do。　Psychologists　are　challenged　to　make　
sense　of　cases　such　as　this　one　that　violate　ordinary　conceptions　about　human　nature。　Their　motivation　is　
not　only　intellectual　curiosity；　but　also　a　desire　to　discover　how　to　help　people　in　ways　that　might　prevent　
such　tragedies　in　the　future。　

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PSYCHOLOGY　AND　LIFE　


CHAPTER　2　
Research　Methods　in　Psychology　

LEARNING　OBJECTIVES　

On　pletion　of　this　chapter；　students　should　be　able　to：　

1。　Explain　why　the　empirical　study　of　psychology　is　important　
2。　Describe　the　theory　behind　and　the　benefits　of　the　scientific　method　
3。　Understand　the　importance　of　the　scientific　method　to　psychology　
4。　Elaborate　on　the　role　of　control　and　bias　in　psychological　research　
5。　Understand　the　importance　of　determinism　to　psychology　in　particular　and　science　in　general　
6。　Explain　how　psychologists　attempt　to　eliminate　alternative　explanations　through　the　use　of　control　
procedures　
7。　Understand　the　concept　of　correlation　and　its　use　in　psychology　
8。　Explain　why　correlation　does　not　imply　causation　
9。　Appreciate　how　the　approach　taken　by　psychologists　can　be　applied　to　aspects　of　students’　lives　
outside　the　classroom　
CHAPTER　OUTLINE　

I。　The　Context　of　Discovery　
A。　The　goal　of　this　chapter　is　to　improve　students’　critical　thinking　skills　by　teaching　them　how　to　ask　
the　right　questions　and　how　to　evaluate　answers　about　causes；　consequences；　and　correlates　of　
psychological　phenomena。　Ultimately；　this　chapter　should　make　your　students　wiser；　more　skeptical　
consumers　of　psychological　information　specifically　and　all　information　generally。　
1。　The　initial　phase　of　research　is　observation；　during　which　beliefs；　information；　
and　general　knowledge　suggest　a　new　way　of　thinking　about　a　phenomenon　
2。　Some　research　questions　originate　from　direct　observation；　while　others　stem　
from　“great　unanswered　questions”　that　have　been　passed　down　through　
history　
3。　A　theory　is　an　organized　set　of　concepts　that　explains　a　phenomenon　or　set　of　
phenomena　
4。　Determinism　rests　at　the　core　of　psychology。　Determinism　is　the　belief　that　all　
events；　whether　physical；　mental；　or　behavioral；　are　the　result　of；　or　determined　
by；　specific　causal　factors。　Because　of　determinism；　all　behavior　and　mental　
processes　must　follow　lawful　patterns。　Psychologists　attempt　to　reveal　these　
lawful　patterns　in　psychological　principles。　
5。　A　hypothesis　is　a　tentative；　testable　prediction　about　the　relationship　between　
causes　and　consequences；　or　about　how　two　or　more　variables　are　related。　
Research　psychologists　test　hypotheses。　
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CHAPTER　2：　RESEARCH　METHODS　IN　PSYCHOLOGY　

6。　The　scientific　method　demands　that　psychological　researchers　have　an　open；　
critical；　skeptical　mind。　This　open…mindedness　makes　conclusions　
provisional；　subject　to　modifications　by　subsequent　findings；　and　makes　
researchers　open　to　new　and　controversial　ideas。　
7。　Within　experimental　psychology；　when　evidence　collected　through　quality　
research　conflicts　with　the　opinions　or　ideas　of　experts；　the　evidence；　or　data；　
wins　
8。　Public　verifiability　is　fundamental　to　psychology。　Secrecy　is　forbidden；　and　
psychologists　must　have　the　opportunity　to　inspect；　criticize；　replicate；　or　
disprove　the　data　and　methods　of　other　researchers。　
II。The　Context　of　Justification：　Safeguards　for　Objectivity　
A。　The　scientific　method　is　a　set　of　procedures　for　gathering　and　interpreting　evidence　in　ways　that　
help　ensure　that　psychological　research　generates　valid；　reliable　conclusions　by　minimizing　sources　
of　error　
B。　Psychology　is　considered　a　science　to　the　extent　that　it　follows　the　scientific　method　
C。　Observer　bias　is　an　error　due　to　the　personal　motives　and　expectations　of　the　viewer。　Personal　
biases　of　observers　act　as　filters　through　which　some　things　are　noticed　as　relevant　and　significant；　
while　others　are　ignored　as　irrelevant　and　unimportant。　
D。　The　Remedy　for　Observer　Bias：　Standardization　
1。　Standardization　means　using　uniform　procedures　in　all　phases　of　the　research　
process。　All　participants　should　experience　exactly　the　same　procedure；　and　
other　researchers　should　be　able　to　replicate　the　procedure　exactly。　
2。　An　operational　definition　standardizes　the　meaning　of　an　event　or　procedure　
within　an　experiment。　It　is　a　specific　definition　of　what　is　meant　by　a　concept　
such　as　“self…est