心理学与生活-第16章

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2。　An　operational　definition　standardizes　the　meaning　of　an　event　or　procedure　
within　an　experiment。　It　is　a　specific　definition　of　what　is　meant　by　a　concept　
such　as　“self…esteem。”　An　operational　definition　may　state　that　participants　
that　score　above　a　certain　number　on　a　self…esteem　measure　are　considered　
“high；”　while　those　that　score　below　that　number　are　considered　“low。”　All　
variables　in　an　experiment　must　be　given　an　operational　definition。　
3。　A　variable　is　any　factor　that　varies　in　amount　or　kind。　Self…esteem　is　an　example　
of　a　variable。　Participants’　scores　can　vary　from　high　to　low。　There　are　two　
types　of　variables。　
a）　A　variable　that　is　free　to　vary　and　is　manipulated　by　the　experimenter　
is　known　as　an　independent　variable。　It　is　also　the　predictor　variable　in　
nonexperimental　（e。g。　correlational）　research。　

b）　A　variable　whose　values　are　the　result　of　changes　in　independent　
variables　is　known　as　a　dependent　variable。　It　is　also　the　variable　that　is　
predicted　in　nonexperimental　research。　

c）　The　experimental　method—used　to　overe　causal　ambiguity—　
manipulates　an　independent　variable　and　then　looks　for　an　effect　on　a　
dependent　variable。　

4。　Alternative　Explanations　are　simply　other　ways　of　explaining　the　results　of　an　
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experiment。　The　more　alternative　explanations　that　exist　without　refutation；　
the　less　confident　a　researcher　can　be　that　his　or　her　predicted　explanation　or　
hypothesis　is　the　correct　one。　

a）　Confounding　variables　are　extraneous　influences　not　intended　by　the　
research　to　be　a　part　of　an　experiment；　but　that　may　unwittingly　affect　
experimental　results。　Because　confounding　variables　are　not　
accounted　or　controlled　for；　researchers　cannot　be　certain　whether　
their　experimental　manipulation　or　a　confounding　variable　is　
responsible　for　experimental　results。　Two　types　of　confounds　apply　to　

almost　all　experiments：　Expectancy　and　Placebo　Effects。　

（i）　Expectancy　effects　occur　when　a　researcher　subtly　
municates　to　the　participants　the　results　that　he　or　she　
expects　to　find。　Participants　may　then　behave　in　the　desired　
manner。　
（ii）　Placebo　effects　occur　when　participants’　beliefs　about　the　
efficacy　of　a　procedure　lead　to　improvement　in　the　participant。　
Participants　can　be　given　chemically　inert　pills；　and；　if　they　
believe　that　the　pills　will　make　them　improve；　participants　
often　do　improve；　due　simply　to　the　placebo　effect。　A　
ponent　of　the　placebo　effect　is　the　belief　that　a　
manipulation　will　lead　to　improvement。　This　belief　does　not　
need　to　be　grounded　in　reality。　In　many　studies；　about　a　third　
of　participants　are　found　to　be　positive　placebo　responders。　

E。　Experimental　Methods　in　Psychology　
1。　Control　procedures　are　methods　that　attempt　to　hold　constant　all　variables　and　
conditions　other　than　those　related　to　the　hypothesis　under　investigation　
a）　A　double…blind　control　refers　to　a　procedure　in　which　both　the　
participant　and　the　experimental　assistant　administering　a　treatment　
are　blind　to；　or　unaware　of；　the　experimental　condition　to　which　the　
participant　is　assigned　

b）　A　placebo　control　is　an　experimental　condition　in　which　participants　
believe　that　they　are　receiving　a　treatment　that　may　be　effective；　but　in　
which　they　are　actually　receiving　a　treatment　that　is　known　not　to　be　
effective。　By　paring　the　placebo　control　group　with　the　group　of　
participants　that　received　the　actual　treatment；　researchers　can　
determine　how　much　change　in　the　participants　is　due　to　their　beliefs　
（placebo　effect）　and　how　much　is　due　to　the　treatment　itself。　

2。　Research　designs：　Properly　designed　experiments　are　another　way　of　ensuring　
that　alternative　explanations　are　kept　to　a　minimum。　By　determining　which　
alternative　explanations　are　likely　to　be　serious　petitors　to　the　explanation　
directly　under　investigation；　researchers　can　incorporate　conditions　that　test　
these　alternative　explanations　in　their　research。　
3。　Random　assignment　is　one　of　the　most　important　aspects　of　research　design。　It　
helps　ensure　that　the　participants　in　each　condition　are　as　similar　to　each　
other　as　possible；　because　each　participant　has　the　same　chance　of　being　in　
each　condition。　
4。　Because　researchers　would　like　to　be　able　to　generalize　their　findings　from　
their　sample；　the　participants　in　their　study；　to　the　larger　population　from　
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which　the　sample　was　drawn；　the　sample　should　be　representative　of　the　
population；　or　a　representative　sample　

5。　In　between…subjects　designs；　participants　are　randomly　assigned　to　one　
experimental　condition　or　one　control　condition。　There　may　be　more　than　one　
experimental　condition；　in　which　participants　are　exposed　to　different　
treatments；　and　there　may　be　more　than　one　control　condition；　in　which　
participants　are　not　exposed　to　those　treatments。　This　allows　researchers　to　
account　for　alternative　explanations。　However；　each　participant　is　only　in　one　
condition。　
6。　In　within…subjects　designs；　each　participant　serves　as　his　or　her　own　control；　as　
they　are　assigned　to　at　least　two　conditions；　a　control　condition　and　an　
experimental　condition。　In　a　within…subjects　experiment；　a　participant　may　be　
given　a　placebo；　such　as　an　inert　sugar　pill；　and　then　given　a　treatment　that　is　
hypothesized　to　be　effective。　By　paring　each　participant’s　change　between　
the　control　（placebo）　condition　and　the　treatment　condition；　researchers　can　
determine　the　efficacy　of　the　treatment　much　more　accurately。　
7。　A　third　type　of　research　design　is　known　as　the　A…B…A　design。　In　the　A…B…A　
design；　each　participant　is　assessed　in　a　baseline　condition；　then　given　an　
experimental　treatment；　and　then　reassessed　in　the　baseline　condition。　The　AB…
A　design　is　a　with…in　subjects　design。　
F。　Correlational　methods　are　used　to　determine　to　what　extent　two　variables；　traits；　or　attitudes　are　
related　
1。　The　standard　measure　of　correlation　is　a　statistic　called　a　correlation　coefficient　
represented　by　“r”。　r　can　vary　between　…1。0　and　＋1。0；　where　…1。0　represents　a　
perfect　negative　correlation；　and　＋1。0　represents　a　perfect　positive　correlation。　
A　correlation　of　0　indicates　that　there　is　no　relationship　between　the　variables。　
In　much　research　on　personality　traits；　r’s　are　modest–between　。10　and　。30。　

2。　A　positive　correlation　means　that　as　one　set　of　two　scores　increases；　so　does　the　
other　set。　For　example；　as　height　increases；　weight　also　tends　to　increase。　
3。　A　negative　correlation　means　that　as　one　set　of　scores　increases；　the　other　set　
decreases。　For　example；　as　physical　exercise　increases；　weight　tends　to　
decrease。　
4。　A　critical　caveat　to　the　correlational　method　is　that　correlation　does　not　imply　
causation。　Simply　because　a　researcher　finds　that　two　variables　are　related　
does　not　mean　that　one　variable　necessarily　causes　the　change　in　the　other　
variable。　This　warning　is　important　because　it　is　difficult；　if　not　impossible；　to　
know　which　variable　is　causing　the　change　in　the　other；　and　there　is　always　
the　possibility　that　a　third；　unknown；　variable　is　causing　the　change　in　both　or　
is　the　key　mediating　variable　between　them。　
a）　Psychological　researchers　have　used　the　experimental　method　to　
demonstrate　that　subliminal　self…help　tapes　offer　nothing　more　than　
placebo　effects。　

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III。　Psychological　Measurement　
A。　Two　main　challenges　to　psychological　measurement：　Achieving　Reliability　and　achieving　Validity　
1。　Reliability　refers　to　the　consistency　or　dependability　of　results　from　research。　If　
we　consider　throwing　darts　at　a　dartboard；　reliability　would　be　measured　by　
how　closely　the　darts　group　together。　If　the　darts　reliably　hit　the　same　spot；　
even　if　it　is　not　the　bull’s…eye；　the　throws　are　reliable。　
2。　Validity　refers　to　how　accurately　the　research　actually　measures　the　
psychological　variable　under　study。　For　instance；　does　the　self…esteem　scale　
used　in　research　accurately　measure　self…esteem；　or　does　it　measure　something　
closer　to　self…presentation　style？　If　we　again　consider　throwing　darts；　validity　
would　be　measured　by　how　closely　the　darts　came　to　the　spot　that　the　thrower　
wanted　to　hit。　If　you　wanted　all　of　your　darts　to　hit　the　bull’s…eye　and　they　did；　
your　throws　would　have　been　both　valid　（they　hit　the　intended　mark）　and　
reliable　（all　of　them　hit　the　same　mark）。　
B。　Self…Report　Measures　
1。　Self…report　measures　are　written　or　spoken　responses　to　questions　posed　by　the　
researcher　
a）　A　questionnaire　is　a　self…report　measure　on　which　a　respondent　replies　
to　a　written　list　of　questions　

b）　Questions　on　self…report　measures　may　be　open…ended；　which　allow　
respondents　to　answer　freely　in　their　own　words；　or　forced　choice；　
which　provide　respondents　with　a　number　of　alternatives；　such　as　
“yes；”　“no；”　and　“undecided；”　from　which　to　choose。　

c）　An　interview　is　an　interactive　dialogue　between　a　researcher　and　an　
individual　for　obtaining　detailed　information。　Good　interviewers　
establish　positive　rapport　with　interviewees；　which　facilitates　self…
disclosure　and　responses　that　are　more　honest。　

C。　Behavioral　Measures　and　Observations　
1。　Behavioral　measures　and　observations　are　ways　to　study　overt　actions　and　
observable；　recordable　reactions　
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a）　Planned；　controlled；　systematic　observation　is　an　important　source　of　
behavioral　data　

b）　Direct　observation　involves　observation　of　behavior　that　is　clearly　
visible　and　easily　recorded　

c）　Naturalistic　observation　occurs　in　a　natural　setting；　such　as　the　
playground　or　in　the　wild；　rather　than　in　an　artificial；　highly　contrived　
laboratory　setting　

2。　Case　study　research　focuses　on　a　single　individual　rather　than　on　large　
numbers　of　participants。　
IV。　Ethical　Issues　in　Human　and　Animal　Research　
A。　At　the　core　of　the　ethical　treatment　of　both　humans　and　animals　is　the　question　of　whether　the　
potential　gains　from　the　proposed　research　outweigh　the　expected　or　potential　costs。　Colleges　have　
established　review　boards　to　help　researchers　make　this　decision；　and　the　American　Psychological　
Association　（APA）　has　established　guidelines　to　ensure　that　research　is　conducted　ethically。　For　
humans；　these　guidelines　include　the　following：　
B。　Informed　Consent　
1。　Whenever　possible；　participants　must　be　informed　about　the　nature　of　the　
experiment　in　which　they　may　participate　and；　after　being　informed；　must　
consent　to　participate。　They　are　also　informed　that　their　consent　is　conditional　
and　that　they　can　withdraw　it　at　any　time　without　penalty。　
C。　Risk　/　Gain　Assessment　
1。　Not　only　do　researchers　have　a　responsibility　to　weigh　potential　risks　of　an　
experiment　against　its　potential　benefits；　they　also　have　a　responsibility　to　do　
everything　in　their　power　to　minimize　risk　to　participants；　whether　they　are　
human　or　nonhuman；　and　to　optimize　the　possible　benefits　to　the　participants　
and　to　society　
D。　Intentional　Deception：　APA　guidelines　make　it　clear　that　intentional　deception　is　justified　only　if：　
1。　The　study　has　sufficient　scientific　and　edu