心理学与生活-第18章
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Cambridge University in 1843； but never obtained a graduate degree。 Because he was independently
wealthy； as were many early psychologists； Galton was free to follow his passion； and his passion led him
to measurement； first of geography and then of humans。 Galton first gained fame as a cartographer for the
Royal Geographical Society on a trip to Africa。 On his return to England； Galton took his cousin’s notion of
the importance of individual differences to evolution； and set about measuring these differences in humans。
Galton was the first to use questionnaires； the first to study the nature–nurture controversy； the first to use a
word…association test； the first to study twins； and the first to study intelligence testing seriously。 Galton’s
work also spawned the creation of the ubiquitous correlation coefficient； r； by his student Charles
Spearman。
Edward Titchener （1867–1927）
Edward Titchener attended Oxford from 1885 to 1890； where he became interested in experimental
psychology and translated Wundt’s Principles of Physiological Psychology into English。 After graduating
from Oxford； Titchener spent two years studying with Wundt in Leipzig。 After receiving his Ph。D。 in 1892；
Titchener took a job at Cornell University； where he remained for his entire career。 While at Cornell；
Titchener developed a thriving department and became the leading exponent of structuralism in America。
Titchener adopted Wundt’s technique of introspection to the study of observable conscious events and
sought to describe the contents of mental life。 Although not successful in his goal of creating a periodic table
of mental events； much like the periodic table of physical elements； Titchener exerted a profound influence
over the development of psychology in America； through both his ideas and the ambitious research
program that he led at Cornell。
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CHAPTER 2： RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY
TIMELINE
Year Event
1811 Charles Bell and Francois Magendie discovered that there are two types of nerves： sensory and
motor nerves。
1827 Ludwig von Beethoven died。
1838 Johannes Müller articulated his “Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies。”
1846 Ernst Weber derived the quantitative relationships between subjective experience and physical
stimulation； known as Weber’s Law。
1848 Marx and Engels published the munist Manifesto。
1859 Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species by Natural Selection； a culmination of his
research and thinking about evolution via natural selection。
1860 Gustav Fechner published Elements of Psychophysics； which outlined the experimental study of
the relationship between subjective experience and physical stimulation。
18611865
The American Civil War was fought。
1872 Claude Monet painted Impression—Sunrise； Le Havre； the painting that lent its name to the
Impressionist movement。
1885 Hermann Ebbinghaus published his empirical research on memory。
1890 William James published the Principles of Psychology； a two…volume text that became the
standard reference for psychology students。
1896 Thomas Edison invented the motion picture。
1898 Edward Thorndike conducted the first systematic experiments on animal learning。
1905 Alfred Binèt and Theodore Simon developed the first useful intelligence test。
1906 Charles Sherrington published Integrative Actions of the Nervous System； which set forth the basic
principles and terminology used today to describe the structure and function of the nervous
system。
1913 John Watson published “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It；” sometimes referred to as the
Behaviorist Manifesto； an influential paper asserting that psychology should restrict its subject
matter to observable behavior。
19141918
World War I was fought。
1928 Ivan Pavlov published Lectures on Conditioned Reflexes； a survey of his research on classical
conditioning。
1938 B。 F。 Skinner published Behavior of Organism： An Experimental Analysis； which outlined the basic
principles of operant conditioning。
19391945
World War II was fought。
1946 The American Psychological Association was reorganized to include practitioner psychologists；
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
as well as research psychologists。
1950 William Estes published “Toward a Statistical Theory of Learning；” a classic paper outlining a
mathematical approach to learning。
1957 Noam Chomsky published Syntactic Structures； inaugurating an era of productive collaboration
between psychologists and linguists。 Psycholinguistics soon became a flourishing field of
psychology。
1957 Herbert Simon published Administrative Behavior： A Study of Decision…Making Processes in
Administrative Organizations； detailing the dynamics of decision making under conditions of
uncertainty。
1962 David Hubel and Thorston Weisel published their research on how specific features of visual
stimuli excite specific neurons in the visual cortex。
1981 Roger Sperry received the Nobel Prize for his pioneering work on the split…brain phenomenon。
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READINGS
Bordens； K。 S。； & Abbott； B。 B。 （1991）。 Research Design and Methods： A Process Approach； 2nd Edition。 Mountain
View； CA： Mayfield。 Applies the research process to both theoretical and practical problems。
Graziano； A。 M。； & Raulin； M。 L。 （1989）。 Research Methods： A Process of Inquiry。 New York： Harper Collins
Publishers。
Keppel； G。 （1991）。 Design and Analysis： A Researcher’s Handbook； 3rd Edition。 Englewood Cliffs； New Jersey：
Prentice Hall。
Stanovich； K。 E。 （1996）。 How to Think Straight about Psychology； 4th Edition。 Glenview； IL： Scott； Foresman。 A
scholarly yet entertaining account of the necessity of using the scientific method in psychology and of its
application to everyday life； filled with great examples to use in lectures。
DISCOVERING PSYCHOLOGY
PROGRAM 2： UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH
Overview
An examination of the scientific method and the ways in which data are collected and applied– in the lab and in the field –
with an emphasis on sharpening critical thinking regarding research findings。
Key Issues
The power of belief； the placebo effect； the double blind procedure； the scientific method and
psychology； and lie detection。
New Interviews
Christina Maslach takes an in…depth look at applied research。
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CHAPTER 2： RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY
FILMS AND VIDEOS
Flatland （1965）。 Contemporary Films； 12 minutes
When a “square” from the two…dimensional world of Flatland tries to convince others of the existence of
a third dimension； he is harshly persecuted。 This animated film illustrates beautifully the scientific
ideals of objectivity and openness to change。
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
CHAPTER 3
The Biological Bases of Behavior
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
On pletion of this chapter； students should be able to：
1。 Understand how biology contributes to the creation of unique individuals
2。 Appreciate the plex interplay among the brain； mind； behavior； and environment that creates
the unique experience of being human
3。 Understand the nature versus nurture and the heredity versus environment controversies
4。 Explain Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection and its relevance and importance to the field of
psychology
5。 Offer examples when given the statement； “Genes do not code for destinies； they code for potential”
6。 Describe the various methods for exploring the functions of the nervous system
7。 Identify the structures and functions of the central nervous system； the peripheral nervous system；
and the autonomic nervous system
8。 Describe the major structures of the brain； and identify their function
9。 Explicate the basic functions of the glands in the endocrine system； and explain the role of
neurotransmitters
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I。 Heredity and Behavior
A。 End points of Causal Explanation
1。 Nature versus Nurture
2。 Heredity versus Environment
B。 Evolution and Natural Selection
1。 Natural Selection： Fundamental assumption of psychology
a） Charles Darwin published The Origin of the Species in 1859
b） Survival of the fittest： Only those organisms most adapted to the
environment survive
2。 Genotypes： A specific genetic structure
3。 Phenotypes： Outward appearance and repertory of behaviors
4。 Genotype and the environment interact to yield a particular phenotype
C。 Human Evolution
1。 Human evolution favored two adaptations： Bipedalism and Encephalization
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CHAPTER3： THE BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR
a） Bipedalism： the ability to walk upright
b） Encephalization： increases in brain size
2。 Language： A third critical evolutionary milestone for humans
a） Language is the basis of cultural evolution–the ability of cultures to
respond adaptively； through learning； to environmental change。 Works
much more quickly than genetic evolution。
D。 Variation in the Human Genotype
1。 Basic Genetics
a） Genes： Organized packets of DNA that contain the instructions for the
production of proteins
b） Genes are found on rod like structures known as chromosomes。 Humans
contain 46 chromosomes； 23 from the mother and 23 from the father。
c） Estimates of the number of genes in the human genome range from 30；000
to 150；000
d） The X and Y sex chromosomes determine sex。 One X es from the
mother； and either an X or a Y es from the father。 XX = female。 XY =
male。
2。 Genes and Behavior： the interaction of psychology and genetics
a） Biology （genes） is （are） not destiny
b） Genes only determine the range of effects that the environment can have in
shaping phenotype and behavior
c） The person that you bee is jointly determined by genes and the
environment； by nature and nurture
3。 Sociobiology focuses on evolutionary explanations for social behavior and social
systems of humans and other animal species
II。Biology and Behavior
A。 Early Explanations of Behavior
1。 Rene Descartes argued that human physiology could be studied empirically； that
humans are just an animal machine； and that human action is a mechanical
response to the environment
2。 Sir Charles Sherrington provided evidence for Descartes’ ideas and suggested that
the human nervous system involves both excitatory and inhibitory processes
3。 Santiago Ramón y Cajal detected the physical gaps between adjacent neurons
4。 Donald Hebb proposed that the brain is not merely a mass of tissue but a highly
integrated series of structures； or cell assemblies； that perform specific functions
5。 Neuroscience is one of the most rapidly growing areas of research today
B。 Eavesdropping on the Brain
1。 Broca’s Area： The region of the brain that translates thoughts into speech
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
2。 Producing brain lesions
a） Not done on humans for obvious ethical reasons
b） Helpful in treating some neurological disorders such as epilepsy
3。 Electrical stimulation
a） Walter Hess found that sleep； sexual arousal； anxiety； and terror could be
turned on and off by electrically stimulating specific areas of the brain
4。 Recording and imaging brain activity
a） Electroencephalogram （EEG） records large
