心理学与生活-第2章

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term。　Nevertheless；　the　first　time　out；　demonstrations　take　lots　of　planning　and　time。　All　demonstrations　
should　be　tried　at　least　once　before　you　attempt　them　in　class；　if　possible；　they　should　be　practiced　several　
times。　This　is　the　only　way　to　accurately　gauge　the　time　you　need；　anticipate　operational　difficulties；　and　get　
the　feel　of　introducing　the　demonstration；　making　transitions；　and　concluding　it。　For　demonstrations　that　
are　time…consuming　or　demanding；　videotape　them　so　next　time　you　are　set　to　go　through　with　the　show　if　
something　goes　amiss　in　the　live　act。　

LECTURES　

Lectures　should　be　drafted　in　final　form　several　days　before　they　are　to　be　delivered　so　that　you　can　revise　
them　as　the　ideas　revolve　in　your　mind。　Lectures　read　verbatim　are　almost　inevitably　deadly　boring。　Never　
read　a　lecture；　unless　you　can　read　like　Dylan　Thomas。　

OUTLINES　

Draw　up　an　outline　on　the　evening　or　morning　before　the　lecture　date　and　speak　from　that　outline；　carrying　
the　full　notes　in　your　briefcase　for　reference　and　a　sense　of　security。　If　duplicating　facilities　are　adequate；　it　is　
helpful　to　distribute　copies　of　your　outline　to　the　students　as　they　enter　the　room。　Otherwise；　you　may　want　
to　write　the　outline　on　the　board　or　display　it　by　overhead　projection。　Teachers　who　use　an　overhead　
projector　regularly　during　their　lectures　may　keep　their　outline　visible　throughout；　projecting　it　via　a　second　
overhead　projector　on　one　side　of　the　screen。　Speaking　from　your　outline　encourages　spontaneity　of　
expression　and　natural　nonverbal　interaction　with　your　students；　while　making　the　outline　available　to　
students　in　advance　allows　them　to　attend　to　the　content　of　your　presentation　without　simultaneously　
attempting　to　tease　out　its　structure。　It　is　also　a　helpful　gift　to　students　who　must　miss　a　class　or　leave　early　
and　so　is　appreciated　by　all。　Writing　the　outline　in　advance　also　forces　you　to　be　organized　and　to　avoid　
last…minute　rushes。　When　you　cannot　prepare　an　outline　in　advance；　distribute　one　the　next　session。　

AUDIT　OTHER　PSYCHOLOGY　COURSES　

If　there　is　an　introductory　psychology　course　in　progress　in　the　term　before　yours；　sit　in　on　it　periodically。　
See　how　the　teacher　launches　the　course；　handles　testing　and　evaluation；　and　deals　with　disturbances。　
What　might　you　do　to　get　the　same　positive　results　but　avoid　any　negative　ones　you　observe？　Try　to　get　a　
sense　of　the　time　involved　in　routine　events　such　as　distributing　and　collecting　papers；　especially　if　the　class　
is　about　the　size　you　expect　your　own　to　be。　Sit　in　the　back　of　the　room　while　a　class　is　in　session　in　the　room　
you　will　be　using　to　find　out　how　the　acoustics　are　and　to　see　how　large　your　writing　on　the　chalkboard　
must　be　in　order　to　be　clearly　legible　to　those　in　the　last　row。　Review　student　course　evaluations　to　learn　
what　teaching　qualities　are　viewed　as　desirable　by　administrators　and　students。　Talk　to　other　introductory　

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psychology　teachers　about　their　experiences。　Your　interest　will　be　highly　rewarding　to　your　colleagues；　and　
the　advice　you　receive　may　be　invaluable　to　you。　Find　out　from　students　or　colleagues　who　are　the　“star”　
teachers　in　your　department。　Visit　some　of　their　classes　to　perform　your　own　analysis　of　what　they　are　doing　
that　works　so　well。　Consider　what　you　might　adopt　or　adapt　from　their　general　style　or　specific　performance　
ponents。　

STRATEGIES　FOR　SUCCESSFUL　TEACHING　

There　is　no　single　ideal　teaching　style；　many　styles　can　lead　to　the　same　positive　educational　outes。　The　
best　style　for　you　in　a　given　teaching　situation　is　not　necessarily　the　one　you　feel　most　fortable　using　at　
first。　The　style　must　allow　you　to　achieve　your　teaching　objectives；　considering　the　course　you　are　teaching　
and　the　kind　of　students　in　your　class。　A　shy；　introspective　manner　may　work　well　in　a　small　seminar　of　
advanced　students；　it　will　not　get　far　in　a　large　lecture　hall　filled　with　lower…level　students。　

TEACHING　METHODS　

The　key　to　effective　delivery　of　your　message　is　variation。　Although　lecturing　continues　to　be　the　most　
mon　teaching　method；　it　is　most　effective　in　small　doses；　particularly　if　you　are　not　an　outstanding　
performer。　Other　methods　include　discussion；　demonstration；　films　and　other　audiovisual　resources；　group　
projects；　experiments；　and　written　or　oral　exercises。　Keep　in　mind　that　any　of　these　approaches　can　be　
bined。　For　example；　team　teaching　certain　lectures　with　a　colleague　from　your　department　or　another　
department；　or　giving　a　mini…lecture　in　a　discussion　section。　

TRADITIONAL　LECTURE　SYSTEM　

You　give　two　or　three　lectures　per　week　with　an　occasional　film；　demonstration；　group　activity；　or　guest　
speaker。　Examinations　are　taken　in　class　and　cover　both　lecture　and　text　content。　You　provide　some　new　
information；　extend　text　materials；　and　serve　as　a　model　of　enthusiasm　for　the　subject　matter。　If　you　cannot　
at　least　role…play　being　enthusiastic　about　psychology　in　general；　do　not　lecture　in　the　traditional　form。　This　
format　also　demands　an　effective　“acting…delivery”　style；　you　must　be　on　your　“power　spot”　when　up　on　the　
stage；　or　else　do　not　choose　to　be　a　traditional　lecturer。　In　a　large　class；　teachers　are　often　bothered　by　the　
impersonality　of　the　setting。　This　is　especially　the　case　if　the　teacher　lectures　from　a　stage　that　creates　both　a　
physical　and　a　psychological　separation　between　the　lecturer…as…performer　and　the　students…as…audience。　

TEAM　TEACHING　

Pair　up　with　a　colleague　whose　interests　and　strengths　plement　yours　and　teach　the　course　in　tandem。　
This　is　especially　advisable　for　new　teachers　because　the　day…to…day　workload　is　shared；　it　can　be　exciting　
to　brainstorm　about　teaching；　and　you　can　arrange　for　feedback。　

DISCUSSION　SECTIONS　

In　lecture　settings；　the　lecturer　takes　control　and　usually　runs　with　the　ball　most　of　the　period。　In　small　
discussion　sections　（from　10　to　30　students）；　the　instructor　willingly　surrenders　much　of　the　control。　The　
discussion　section　is　a　means　of　providing　information；　usually　in　an　informal　manner；　with　ample　time　
allowed　for　questions；　answers；　demonstrations；　and　role…playing。　The　discussion　leader　involves　the　
students　in　decisions　about　the　direction　of　the　course　and　how　they　can　help　to　implement　course　
objectives。　Discussion　sections　can　be　valuable　sources　of　intellectual；　effective　stimulation　for　both　teacher　
and　student　when　they　are　well　designed。　One　variation　is　to　bine　the　lecture　format　with　a　once…weekly　
class　session　devoted　to　student…led　discussion　about　the　current　topic。　

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UNIT　MASTERY　SYSTEM　

In　the　unit　mastery　system；　lectures　may　be　optional　or　given　as　special　features；　with　the　grade　dependent　
solely　on　pletion　of　all　quizzes　at　or　beyond　the　mastery　level。　The　major　features　of　this　system　are：　

。　Students　progress　through　course　assignments　at　their　own　pace。　
。　Instead　of　mass　testing　at　prefixed　lecture　times；　each　student　es　to　a　testing　center　
whenever　he　or　she　is　ready　to　take　a　particular　exam。　
。　The　testing　center　is　run　by　student　proctors；　staff　personnel；　or　the　instructor。　
。　Tests　failed　may　be　repeated　without　penalty　on　parallel　forms　after　a　suitable　time　for　restudy。　
Feedback　on　test　performance　is　immediate；　private；　and　personalized　from　proctor　to　student　
test…taker。　
。　Testing　and　grading　are　physically　and　psychologically　separated　from　the　lecturer　and　lecture　
setting；　with　the　advantage　of　more　positive　attitudes　toward　the　teacher。　A　unit　mastery　system　
takes　considerable　effort　to　set　up；　but　once　you　have　done　so　you　are　freed　from　all　chores　
related　to　testing　and　evaluation。　Since　each　student　progresses　at　an　individual　rate　in　taking　
the　chapter　quizzes；　you　are　also　liberated　from　having　to　teach　a　specified　amount　of　material　
before　each　preestablished　examination　date；　as　occurs　with　traditional　evaluation　systems。　
References：　

Hobbs；　S。　H。　（1987）。　PSI：　Use；　misuse；　and　abuse。　Teaching　of　psychology；　14；　106…107。　

Keller；　Fred　A。；　&　Sherman；　J。　Gilmour。　（1974）。　The　Keller　plan　handbook：　Essays　on　a　personalized　

system　of　instruction。　Menlo　Park；　CA：　W。　A。　Benjamin。　

SOME　BASIC　MECHANICS　OF　TEACHING　

Your　decisions　about　teaching　methods　and　your　experiences　will　shape　your　unique　style　of　teaching。　
Regardless　of　what　that　style　is　now　or　may　bee；　some　elements　are　mon　to　all　effective　teaching　
styles。　Here　are　several　of　those　elements：　

。　At　the　beginning　of　class；　review　briefly　what　you　talked　about　the　last　time　the　class　met。　Ask　if　
there　are　any　questions　about　previous　material。　Next；　let　the　students　know　what　your　goals　
are　for　today。　What　you　want　them　to　get　from　today’s　lecture？　Outline　the　major　points　of　the　
lecture　on　the　board　or　on　an　overhead　transparency。　
。　Correct　and　pass　back　quizzes；　exams；　and　papers　as　soon　as　possible。　Nobody　likes　to　be　left　
in　the　lurch　when　it　es　to　feedback。　Getting　materials　back　quickly　to　students　shows　that　
you　are　being　considerate　of　them。　
。　Pass　back　exams　and　deal　with　administrative　matters　after　your　lecture。　On　days　that　you　will　
be　passing　out　test　results；　plan　to　cut　your　lecture　short　to　leave　room　to　answer　questions。　
This　ensures　that　there　is　time　for　your　lecture。　Passing　back　quizzes　or　exams　at　the　beginning　
of　class　is　generally　a　bad　idea　because　students　who　are　disappointed　with　their　exam　grade　
may　tune　you　out　for　the　remainder　of　the　class　period。　
。　Create　an　opportunity　for　students　to　review　their　exams　with　you；　if　only　to　ask　questions　
about　examination　material。　Allow　students　to　defend　their　interpretation　of　an　exam　question　
in　writing。　If　a　student　challenges　a　question　in　an　unkind　manner；　suggest　that　the　two　of　you　
get　together　after　class　to　consider　the　matter。　If；　because　of　further　discussion　with　the　student；　
you　decide　that　the　exam　question　was　a　bad　one　and　you　will　give　students　credit　for　it；　
announce　the　change　to　the　class。　
。　Learn　the　names　of　your　students。　This　can　generally　be　quickly　acplished　in　a　class　of　25　
to　50　students；　but　will　be　tough　in　sections　of　several　hundred　students。　Learning　students’　
names　shows　that　you　are　interested　in　your　students　and　it　may　help　them　to　bee　more　
interested　in　your　class—they　know　that　you　know　who　they　are　and　that　their　contributions　to　
class　have　personal　implications。　
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。　Encourage　student　questions。　Even　in　large　sections；　a　good　way　to　start　discussion—a　nice　
break　from　straight　lecturing—is　to　allow　time　for　questions。　When　it　es　to　students’　
questions；　keep　in　mind　three　points。　First；　repeat　the　question　for　the　benefit　of　students　sitting　
in　the　back　of　the　room　who　may　not　have　been　able　to　hear　the　question。　Second；　show　genuine　
interest　in　the　question　either　by　considerately　answering　it　yourself；　or　by　throwing　it　out　to　the　
class　for　their　response。　Third；　let　the　student　who　asked　the　question　know　that　you　appreciate　
his　or　her　participation。　
。　If　you　do　not　know　the　answer　to　a　question；　say　so。　If　the　question　is　an　interesting　one；　tell　
your　students　that　you　will　find　the　answer　for　them。