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心理学与生活-第23章

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premature human infants。 Her research team randomly selected 20 preemies to receive periodic massages 
throughout the day; while 20 others received normal hospital treatment in the intensive care unit; treatment 
that did not include massage。 According to Field; “The premature babies who were massaged for 45 
minutes a day for ten days before they were discharged gained 47 percent more weight than the babies who 
did not get massaged。 They were more active。 They were more alert。” Eight months later; the massaged 
babies had maintained their weight advantage and were more advanced in motor; cognitive; and emotional 
development。 This research is being extended and replicated in larger samples of preemies in order to 
establish the power of human touch on biological and psychological health。 

In the United States; more than 0。25 million infants are born prematurely each year。 Those who are touched 
and cuddled leave the hospital several days sooner than usual; reducing care costs by about 3;000 per 
child。 Unfortunately; not all hospitals apply what scientists have learned about the positive effects of early 
touch on development。 If they did; the lives of thousands of children would be improved; saving billions of 
dollars each year—both practical benefits of this basic research。 

When Nicole and Alexis left the hospital; they were still small; but were developing so well that doctors felt 
confident they would be all right。 At home; the babies shared a crib in the living room; where relatives and 
friends who remarked on their tiny size were encouraged to pick up the babies gently and cuddle them。 
Christine and her husband were acutely aware of the important role played by human touch in the optimal 
development of the brain and the mental and psychical processes that it controls。 

51 


CHAPTER 4 
Sensation 

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 

On pletion of this chapter; students should be able to: 

1。 Understand the basic processes through which sensory stimuli are converted into neural 
events 
2。 Describe Müller’s doctrine of specific nerve energies 
3。 Relate the differences in thresholds (absolute and difference) and know why these concepts 
are relevant 
4。 Discuss the concepts of response bias and signal detection theory 
5。 Identify the parts and functions of the human visual system 
6。 Understand the basic processes involved in color vision; and the theories supporting those 
processes 
7。 Describe the physiological ponents of the auditory system 
8。 Explain the two theories of pitch perception 
9。 Define pheromones and describe their role in olfaction 
CHAPTER OUTLINE 

I。 Sensory Knowledge of the World 
A。 Sensation is the process by which stimulation of sensory receptors produces neural 
impulses that represent experiences inside or outside the body 
B。 This chapter deals with sensory processes; with the sense organs and peripheral aspects of 
the nervous system that put you in contact with the world around you 
C。 Your senses have two basic functions 
1。 Survival 
2。 Sensuality 
D。 While some animals specialize in one sensory medium; such as the sight of hawks; humans 
are equipped with a variety of sensory mechanisms 
E。 Psychophysics 
1。 The study of the relationship between physical stimuli and the 
behavior or mental experiences the stimuli evoke。 The oldest field in 
psychology。 
2。 Gustav Fechner (1801–1887) 
a) The most significant figure in psychophysics 
52 


CHAPTER 4: SENSATION 

b) Coined the term “psychophysics” and developed procedures to 
relate the intensity of physical stimulus to the magnitude of the 
sensory experience。 

3。 Absolute Thresholds and Sensory Adaptation 
a) The absolute threshold for stimulation is the smallest; weakest 
stimulus energy that the organism can detect 

b) Operationally defined as the stimulus level at which a sensory 
input is detected half of the time 

c) Sensory Adaptation is the diminishing responsiveness of sensory 
systems to prolonged stimulus input。 Sensory systems are more 
sensitive to change in stimulus input than to steady input。 

4。 Response Bias 
a) The systematic tendency for an observer to favor responding in a 
particular way that is unrelated to the qualities of the sensory 
stimulus。 For instance; tending to say “yes” or “no” all of the time。 
There are at least three sources of response bias。 
i) Desire 
ii) Expectation 
iii) Habit 

5。 Signal Detection Theory 
a) A systematic approach to the problem of response bias 

b) Focuses on the process of making a judgment about the presence 
or absence of a stimulus 

c) Unlike classical psychophysics which conceptualized a single 
absolute threshold; Signal Detection Theory identifies two distinct 
processes in sensory detection: Sensory Processes and Decision 
Processes 

i) Sensory Processes reflect an observer’s sensitivity to the 
stimulus 

ii) Decision Processes reflect an observer’s response bias to 
the stimulus 

6。 Difference Thresholds 
a) The difference threshold for stimulation is the smallest physical 
difference between two stimuli that can still be recognized as a 
difference 

b) Operationally defined as the point at which the stimuli are 
recognized as different half of the time 

c) The difference threshold value is known as the Just Noticeable 
Difference (JND) 

7。 Weber’s Law 
a) The JND between stimuli is a constant fraction of the intensity of 
the standard stimulus 

53 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

F。 From Physical Events to Mental Events 
1。 Sensory Physiology 
a) The study of the way biological mechanisms convert physical 
events into neural events 

b) Transduction is the conversion of one form of energy; such as 
light; into another form; such as nerve impulses 

2。 The Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies 
a) Proposed by Johannes Müller in 1826 

b) Different sensory experiences; such as sight and smell; do not 
produce different types of nerve activity。 Rather they produce the 
same type of nerve activity; but in different regions of the brain。 

c) All sensory systems share the same basic flow of information。 
Environmental events are detected by specialized sensory receptor 
neurons; called stimulus detector units; which convert the 
physical energy received from the environment into neural signals 
that can be processed by the central nervous system。 

II。 The Visual System 
A。 The Importance of Vision 
1。 The most plex; highly developed; and important sense for humans 
and most other mobile creatures 
2。 Provides a tremendous evolutionary advantage 
B。 The Human Eye 
1。 Light enters the eye through the cornea; a transparent bulge on the front 
of the eye 
2。 Light then passes through the anterior chamber; which is filled with a 
clear liquid called aqueous humor 
3。 Then through the pupil; an opening in the opaque iris 
4。 Then through the lens; which focuses the ining light 
5。 Then through the vitreous humor; another clear liquid 
6。 And then finally strikes the retina; a thin sheet of neuron that lines the 
rear wall of the eyeball 
C。 The Pupil and the Lens 
1。 The iris makes the pupil dilate to control the amount of light entering the 
eye。 The lens focuses the light on the retina; reversing and inverting the 
light as it does so。 The lens is responsible for focusing to account for the 
distance to the object。 
2。 Acmodation is the change in the thickness of the lens。 Problems with 
acmodation are responsible for many vision problems; such as near…
and far…sightedness。 
D。 The Retina 
54 


CHAPTER 4: SENSATION 

1。 The retina is posed of specialized photoreceptor cells called rods and 
cones that convert light energy into nerve energy 
a) Rods function best in low light 

b) Cones function best in bright light 

2。 Dark adaptation is the gradual improvement of the eyes’ sensitivity after 
a shift in illumination from light to near darkness 
3。 The area of sharpest vision is called the fovea; a small area near the 
center of the retina that contains only densely packed cones 
4。 Bipolar cells are nerve cells that bine information from many receptor 
cells and send the results to ganglion cells 
5。 Ganglion cells then integrate the information from bipolar cells into a 
single firing rate 
6。 The axons of the ganglion cells prise the optic nerve; which carries 
visual information to the brain 
7。 Horizontal and Amacrine cells do not send information to the brain but 
rather integrate information across the retina 
a) Horizontal cells connect receptors to each other 

b) Amacrine cells connect bipolar cells to bipolar cells and ganglion 
cells to ganglion cells 

8。 The optic disk or blind spot is the area where the optic nerve exits the 
retina。 It contains no receptor cells。 Blindness is not experienced at this 
spot because the blind spots for each eye are different areas of the visual 
field and because the brain automatically fills in the blind spot。 
E。 Pathways to the Brain 
1。 After processing by other brain regions; the ultimate destination of much 
visual information is the part of the occipital lobe known as the visual 
cortex 
2。 The axons of the millions of ganglion cells that form the optic nerve 
e together at the optic chiasma; where they are divided into two 
bundles called optic tracts 

3。 Half of the nerve fibers from each retina stay on the side from which they 
originated。 The other half cross over to the other side of the brain。 
4。 Much visual information then flows to the primary visual cortex; where 
roughly 30 anatomical subdivisions of the primary visual cortex process 
information concerning form; color; position; and depth 
F。 Seeing Color 
1。 Visible light (wave length of 400–700 manometers) is just a small portion 
of the electromagnetic spectrum; which includes X rays; microwaves; and 
radio waves 

55 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

2。 Wavelength refers to the distance between crests of two consecutive 
waves。 Wavelength determines the color perceived。 
3。 All experiences of color can be described in terms of hue; saturation; and 
brightness 
a) Hue captures the qualitative experience of color of the light 
stimulus 

b) Saturation captures the purity and vividness of color sensations 

c) Brightness captures the intensity of the light 

4。 Humans can discriminate about 7 million different colors 
5。 The bination of all wavelengths of light yields white light 
6。 Wavelengths of light that appear directly across from each other on the 
color wheel are called plementary; and create the sensation of white 
light when mixed 
7。 Color Blindness is the inability to distinguish colors。 More males than 
females are color blind; and most color blindness involves the inability 
to distinguish red from green。 
8。 There are two primary theories of color vision: The Young…Helmholtz 
Trichromatic Theory and the Opponent…Process Theory 
a) The Trichromatic Theory of color perception; proposed by Sir 
Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz; suggests that all 
colors perceived are produced by just three types of color receptors 
in the eye: red; green; and blue。 All other colors are binations 
of these。 This theory

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