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心理学与生活-第26章

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The other major source of information about the horizontal direction of a sound is the time at which 
it arrives at your two ears。 When a sound es from directly in front of your head; the arrival times 
are the same because your two ears are the same distance away from the sound。 However; when the 
sound es from the side; the sound wave must travel farther to reach the ear on the far side。 Even 
though this extra distance takes only a little extra time—less than one…thousandth of a second—it is 
enough to tell us which side sound is ing from。 

The direction of sounds from left to right; or right to left; is probably the most important part of 
spatial hearing; but it is not the only part。 You can also tell whether a sound is ing from above 
or below—the sound of a jet streaking overhead or of an object dropped at your feet。 You are not 
able to perceive vertical direction from simple arrival times or intensities; however。 It is the shape of 
the external ear that allows you to perceive the vertical dimension of space。 Notice that your ear is 
asymmetrical。 There are many plex; sound…reflecting folds in the pinna above the ear canal; and 
few below it。 These differences in the shape of the external ear make subtle changes in the sound 
wave that enters your ears; depending on the vertical direction of the sound source。 Somewhere in 
the auditory centers of the brain; these differences are detected and decoded; allowing you to 
perceive upward and downward directions of environmental sounds。 

We are left with the problem of perceiving the third dimension of depth—how far away the source 
of a sound is from us。 A sound that is near is louder than one that is far away; so you might think 

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CHAPTER 4: SENSATION 

that intensity would provide all the information you need about the distance (or depth) of the 
source of a sound。 Unfortunately; it is not that easy。 A low…intensity sound at the ear might have 
e from either a loud sound far away or a soft one nearby。 This situation is analogous to the 
relations among retinal size; object distance; and object size in visual perception。 If the sound is one 
whose usual intensity you know; such as someone speaking in a normal voice or the sound of an 
average car engine; you can perceive its approximate distance by sound using intensity 
information。 If the sound is one whose usual intensity you do not know; you cannot tell how far 
away it is by hearing it; you have to look。 Because you can locate the direction that the sound is 
ing from using your ears; you can use them to point your eyes in the correct direction; which 
can then do the job of judging distance。 

65 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

BIOGRAPHICAL PROFILES 

Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894) 

Hermann Von Helmholtz obtained his M。D。 in Berlin and served subsequently as an Army surgeon 
for seven years。 Following his military service; he studied math and physics and held academic 
appointments over the next 30 years at Bonn; Heidelberg; and Berlin; initially as a physiologist; 
later as a physicist。 Helmholtz; whose versatility and intellectual brilliance manifested itself in 
various disciplines; is considered one of the true giants in the history of science。 

Helmholtz’s prominence in physiology came chiefly from his discovery of the rate of neural 
conduction; a finding that surprised many of his contemporaries who had assumed that nerve 
impulses must travel at or near the speed of light。 In addition; he invented the opthalmoscope while 
researching vision; and was involved in the development of theories of color vision and pitch 
perception that remain influential today。 His published works include the three…volume series 

Physiological Optics (1856—1866)。 

Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795—1879) 

Ernst Weber taught anatomy and physiology at the University of Leipzig; Germany; from 1820 until 
the end of his career。 He is remembered in psychology for his studies of psychophysical relations; 
especially for the sensations of temperature and touch。 Weber was the first to investigate the two…
point threshold for touch; observing that sensitivity to touch varied across different parts of the 
body and demonstrating that regions of the body are differentially sensitive to tactile stimulation。 
Weber’s analysis of difference thresholds led to the finding that the size of the difference threshold 
remains a constant fraction of the stimulus intensity; an orderly relationship referred to as Weber’s 
Law。 

Ronald Melzack (b。 1929) 

Ronald Melzack was raised and educated in Montreal; Canada; obtaining his Ph。D。 from McGill 
University in 1958。 He conducted research in pain sensation at the University of Oregon Medical 
School from 1954 to 1957。 Following this; he was a visiting lecturer at University College; London; 
and spent a year conducting physiological research in Italy at the University of Pisa。 He was 
appointed to the faculty of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1959; but returned to 
McGill University in 1963。 

Melzack’s doctoral research on pain in experimental animals resulted in his collaboration with 
Patrick Wall。 Out of this effort emerged the gate…control theory of pain; which remains today the 
most widely accepted theory of pain sensation and regulation。 Its implications have influenced not 
only basic research on pain but also the clinical practice of pain management。 Melzack continues to 
refine and modify this successful theory。 

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CHAPTER 4: SENSATION 

TIMELINE 

Year Event 
1838 Johannes Müller formulated his doctrine of specific nerve energies; which states that 
sensory experience depends not on the stimulus; but on the part of the nervous system 
that is activated。 
1839 M。 E。 Chevreul published On the Law of simultaneous Contrast of Colors。 
1843 S。ren Kierkegaard published Either/Or。 
1846 Ernst Weber postulated that the difference threshold is a constant proportion of the initial 
stimulus intensity; a notion later formalized as Weber’s Law。 
1855 Walt Whitman published Leaves of Grass。 
1857 Based on the earlier work of Thomas Young; Hermann von Helmholtz proposed that color 
vision is due to three different types of color receptors (cones); each of which is sensitive to 
a specific range of wavelengths of light。 
1860 Gustav Fechner published Elemente der Psychophysik; marking the founding of 
psychophysics; the study of the relationship between subjective experience and physical 
stimulation。 
1898 The Spanish…American War was fought。 
1929 The Great Depression began with the stock market crash。 
1938 H。 Keffer Hartline discovered that optic nerve fibers respond to stimulation from different 
receptive fields。 
19501953 
The Korean War was fought。 
1954 Tanner and Swets proposed the application of signal detection theory to the study of 
thresholds。 
1954 The first hydrogen bomb was exploded。 
1957 S。 S。 Stevens demonstrated that changes in one’s subjective impression of stimulus 
magnitude are a power function of the actual stimulus magnitude。 
1957 Leo Hurvich and Dorothea Jameson; building on the work of Ewald Hering; postulated 
the theory that color vision is based on opposing neural processes; the opponent…process 
theory of color vision。 
1959 David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel discovered that cells in the visual cortex of cats (and; in 
1968; of monkeys) respond differentially to form and movement。 

67 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READINGS 

Kosslyn; S。 M。 (1995)。 Visual Cognition: An Invitation To Cognitive Science; Vol。 2 (2nd ed。)。 Cambridge: 
MIT Press。 Explores the mental aspects of visual processing。 Discusses the important research; 
discoveries; and insights in various areas of research on visual cognition and attempts to 
integrate work from related fields。 

Kosslyn; S。; & Koenig; O。 (1992)。 Wet Mind: The New Cognitive Neuroscience。 New York: Free Press。 A 
prehensive; integrated; and accessible overview of recent insights into how the brain gives 
rise to mental activity。 Examines a large number of syndromes that occur following brain 
damage; and accounts for them according to an analysis of the operation of a normal brain。 The 
authors also present an interesting theory of consciousness。 

Link; S。 (1994)。 Rediscovering the Past: Gustav Fechner and Signal Detection Theory。 Psychological 
Science; 5(6); 335…340。 Suggests that the origins of experimental psychology are found in the 
theoretical works of Gustav Fechner and that Fechner is not given the credit that he is due for 
his contributions。 Argues that his works spawned many new ideas and theories; including the 
response bias found in signal detection theory。 

Matlin; M。 W。; & Foley; H。 J。 (1992)。 Sensation and Perception。 (3rd edition)。 Boston: Allyn and Bacon。 
A well…written introduction to the fields of sensation and perception。 

Sekuler; R。 (1995)。 Motion Perception as a Partnership: Exogenous and Endogenous Contributions。 Current 
Directions in Psychological Science; 4(2); 43–47。 Describes the process of motion detection as a 
result of the interaction of exogenous and endogenous influences。 

DISCOVERING PSYCHOLOGY 

PROGRAM 7: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION 
Overview 

Explores how we make contact with the world outside our brain and body。 See how biological; 
cognitive; social; and environmental influences shape our personal sense of reality; and gain an 
understanding of how psychologists use perceptual errors to study how the constructive process of 
perception works。 

Key Issues 

Visual illusions; the biology of perception; the visual pathway; how the brain processes information 

during perception; sensory feedback in visual perception; and perceptual constancy。 

Demonstrations 

Sensory feedback in visual perception。 A Stanford student demonstrates the problems that football 
quarterbacks face in the adjustment to special kinesthetic cues with distortion goggles that displace 
feedback from the perceived visual field。 

Perceptual constancy。 Philip Zimbardo demonstrates visual misperception in the Ames distorted room 

in the Exploratorium in San Francisco。 

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CHAPTER 4: SENSATION 

Interviews 

Nobel Prize winner David Hubel (Harvard University) explains the mapping of the reaction of receptor 

cells along the visual pathway of primates。 Hubel’s award…winning experiment of the response of 

neurons to electrical activity in the visual cortex of a cat illustrates his point。 

Misha Pavel uses puter graphics to demonstrate how the visual system of the brain breaks down 

and rebines visual stimulation into recognizable; coherent images。 

FILMS AND VIDEOS 

A Touch of Sensitivity (1981)。 BBC; 50 minutes 

This NOVA presentation discusses the importance of touch and the effects of touch deprivation。 
This film examines the importance of touch for development at various ages。 Many interesting areas 
of research are cited。 

The Mind: Pain and Healing (1988)。 HARR; 24 minutes 

Reviews the influence of the mind on people’s ability to control pain; and on their ability to promote 
physical healing。 An excellent film。 Traces the progress of a woman through 

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