心理学与生活-第27章

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physical　healing。　An　excellent　film。　Traces　the　progress　of　a　woman　through　a　three…week　clinic　
program　to　reduce　chronic　pain。　The　changes　in　her　movement　and　affect　are　dramatic。　
Demonstrates　the　placebo　effect；　and　shows　how　cues；　such　as　a　doctor’s　white　coat；　can　trigger　the　
release　of　endorphins　to　reduce　pain。　In　the　final　segment；　a　cancer　patient　discusses　how　the　
interaction　of　cognitive　therapy　and　physical　therapy　increased　her　life　expectancy　and　quality。　

The　Senses：　Eyes　and　Ears　（1985）。　FFHS；　26　minutes　

Visual　and　auditory　distance　receptors　are　discussed。　Demonstrations　of　how　each　processes　
information　are　also　shown。　

The　Senses：　Skin　Deep　（1985）。　FFHS；　26　minutes　

The　sense　receptors　that　depend　on　immediate　contact　with　the　world–taste　buds；　olfactory　cells；　
and　touch　sensors–are　examined。　

CASE　STUDY　LECTURE　LAUNCHER　

Five　months　before　her　second　birthday；　Helen　Keller　was　stricken　with　a　mysterious　illness　that　
deprived　her　of　both　sight　and　hearing。　Helen’s　other　senses　became　highly　developed—a　
phenomenon　experienced　by　many　people　who　suffer　long…term　sensory　deprivation—and　her　
sensory　experiences　were　eloquently　documented：　“I　cannot　recall　what　happened　during　the　first　
months　after　my　illness。　I　only　know　that　I　sat　in　my　mother’s　lap　or　clung　to　her　dress　as　she　went　
about　her　household　duties。　My　hands　felt　every　object　and　observed　every　motion；　and　in　this　way；　
I　learned　to　know　many　things。　。　。　。　Sometimes　I　stood　between　two　persons　who　were　conversing　
and　touched　their　lips。　I　could　not　understand；　and　was　vexed”　（Keller；　1902；　pp。　26—27）。　

In　her　seventh　year；　Helen　Keller　became　the　pupil　of　Annie　Sullivan；　a　young　woman　whose　vision　
was　partially　impaired。　In　letters　to　a　matron　at　the　Perkins　School　in　Boston　where　Annie　had　been　
educated；　she　wrote　of　the　pleasure　Helen　derived　from　her　remaining　senses：　“On　entering　a　
greenhouse　her　countenance　bees　radiant；　and　she　will　tell　the　names　of　the　flowers　with　which　
she　is　familiar；　by　the　sense　of　smell　alone。　。　。　。　She　enjoys　in　anticipation　the　scent　of　a　rose　or　a　
violet；　and　if　she　is　promised　a　bouquet　of　these　flowers；　a　peculiarly　happy　expression　lights　her　
face”　（Sullivan；　1954；　p。　294）。　

Helen　herself　wrote　about　the　way　that　her　sense　of　smell　gave　her　advance　warning　of　storms。　“I　
notice　first　a　throb　of　expectancy；　a　slight　quiver；　a　concentration　in　my　nostrils。　As　the　storm　draws　

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near　my　nostrils　dilate；　the　better　to　receive　the　flood　of　earth　odors；　which　seem　to　multiply　and　
extend；　until　I　feel　the　splash　of　rain　against　my　cheek。　As　the　tempest　departs；　receding　farther　and　
farther；　the　odors　fade；　bee　fainter　and　fainter　and　die　away　beyond　the　bar　of　space。”　（Keller；　
Ackerman；　1990；　p。　44）。　

Annie　Sullivan　reported　that　Helen’s　“whole　body　is　so　finely　organized　that　she　seems　to　use　it　as　
a　medium　for　bringing　herself　into　closer　relations　with　her　fellow　creatures。”　Annie　was　puzzled　
at　first　by　Helen’s　“inexplicable　mental　faculty”　for　picking　up　emotions　and　physical　sensations。　
She　soon　realized；　though；　that　Helen　had　developed　an　exquisite　sensitivity　to　the　muscular　
variations　of　those　around　her。　“One　day；　while　she　was　out　walking　with　her　mother；　。　。　。　a　boy　
threw　a　torpedo；　which　startled　Mrs。　Keller。　Helen　felt　the　change　in　her　mother’s　movements　
instantly；　and　asked；　‘What　are　we　afraid　of？”’　（Sullivan；　1908；　p。　295）。　During　a　hearing　test；　Helen　
astonished　a　roomful　of　people　when　“she　would　turn　her　head；　smile；　and　act　as　though　she　had　
heard　what　was　said。”　However；　when　Annie　let　go　of　Helen’s　hand　and　moved　to　the　opposite　
side　of　the　room；　Helen　remained　motionless　for　the　rest　of　the　test。　Although　she　could　neither　see　
nor　hear；　Helen　Keller　extracted　a　great　deal　of　sensory　information　from　the　world。　She　did　not　
perceive　color；　light；　and　sound　through　ordinary　channels。　Instead；　she　“heard”　symphonies　by　
placing　her　hands　on　a　radio　to　feel　the　vibrations；　and　she　“saw”　where　a　person　had　been　by　
picking　up　the　scent　of　his　or　her　clothes。　Her　ability　to　pensate　for　her　sensory　disabilities　hints　
at　the　intricate　coordination　within　human　sensory　systems　and　the　interaction　of　sensory　and　
brain　processes。　It　also　makes　us　aware　of　the　extent　to　which　our　senses　work　in　unison　to　weave　
experience　of　the　world　around　us　into　the　fabric　of　our　very　being。　

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CHAPTER　5
Perception


LEARNING　OBJECTIVES　

On　pletion　of　this　chapter；　students　should　be　able　to：　

1。　Understand　the　relationship　between　sensation　and　perception　
2。　Explain　the　perceptual　concepts　of　reality；　ambiguity；　and　illusion　
3。　Describe　the　roles（s）　played　by　attention　in　the　processes　of　perception　
4。　Define　the　concepts　of　preattentive　processing　and　guided　search　
5。　Explicate　the　Gestalt　principles　of　figure；　ground；　and　closure；　and　be　able　to　give　examples　
of　each　
6。　Describe　the　principles　of　perceptual　grouping　
7。　Define　the　concepts　of　motion　and　depth　perception　
8。　Explain　the　importance　of　perceptual　constancy　in　perceptual　processes　
9。　Describe　the　significance　of　identification　and　recognition　in　the　overall　process　of
perception
CHAPTER　OUTLINE　

I。　Sensing；　Organizing；　Identifying；　and　Recognizing　
A。　The　Proximal　and　Distal　Stimulus　
1。　Perception　is　the　set　of　processes　that　organize　information　in　the　
sensory　image　and　interpret　that　information　as　having　been　
produced　by　objects　or　events　in　the　external　world　
2。　Perceptual　organization　refers　to　the　internal　representation　of　an　
object　
3。　A　distal　stimulus　is　a　physical　object　in　the　world　
4。　A　proximal　stimulus　is　the　optical　image　of　a　distal　stimulus　that　
appear　on　the　retina　
B。　Reality；　Ambiguity；　and　Illusions　
1。　Ambiguity　means　that　a　single　image　at　the　sensory　level　can　result　in　
multiple　interpretations　at　the　perceptual　and　identification　levels　
2。　When　your　perceptual　systems　deceive　you　into　experiencing　a　
stimulus　pattern　in　a　manner　that　is　demonstrably　incorrect；　you　are　
experiencing　an　illusion　
C。　Approaches　to　the　Study　of　Perception　
1。　Helmholtz　argued　for　the　importance　of　experience；　or　nurture；　in　
perception　
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2。　Gestalt　psychology　put　greater　emphasis　on　the　role　of　innate　
structures；　or　nature；　in　perceptual　experience　
3。　The　Gibsons　suggested　that　perception　could　be　better　understood　
through　an　analysis　of　the　immediately　surrounding　environment　
a）　Gibson’s　theory　of　ecological　optics　focused　attention　on　
properties　of　external　stimuli　rather　than　on　the　mechanisms　
by　which　you　perceive　the　stimuli　

II。Attentional　Processes　
A。　Selective　Attention　
1。　In　1958　Donald　Broadbent　proposed　that　the　mind　functions　as　a　
munications　channel；　like　a　telephone　line　or　puter　modem；　
that　has　a　limited　capacity　to　process　information　
2。　The　brain’s　limited　processing　capacity　makes　it　impossible　to　attend　
to　everything　and　makes　the　filtering　of　information　to　the　brain　
necessary　
3。　Broadbent’s　Filter　Theory　of　Attention　asserted　that　this　filtering　
occurs　early　in　the　process；　before　the　input’s　meaning　is　assessed　
4。　Dichotic　listening　tasks　were　used　to　test　filter　theory；　and　it　was　
found　that　not　all　information　is　filtered　
5。　The　cocktail　party　phenomenon　occurs　when　an　individual　hears　
their　own　name　mentioned　across　a　noisy　room　although　the　
individual　is　participating　in　an　unrelated　conversation。　Thus；　even　
information　to　which　an　individual　is　not　attending　is　processed　to　
some　extent。　
6。　As　a　general　rule；　information　that　is　not　attended　to　will　not　make　its　
presence　known；　unless　it　is　very　distinct　or　personally　relevant　
B。　Attention　and　Objects　in　the　Environment　
1。　One　of　the　main　functions　of　attention　is　to　help　you　find　particular　
objects　in　a　noisy　visual　environment　
2。　plex　processing　occurs　without　attention　or　awareness　
3。　Preattentive　processing　operates　on　sensory　inputs　before　you　attend　to　
them；　as　they　first　enter　the　brain　from　sensory　receptors　
a）　Is　skilled　at　finding　objects　that　can　be　defined　by　a　single　
feature　

b）　Allows　parallel　search　of　the　environment　for　a　single　
prominent　feature　

（i）　Parallel　search　allows　the　consideration　of　many　
objects　at　once　
（ii）　Serial　search　allows　the　consideration　of　only　one　
object　at　a　time　
c）　Allows　guided　search　of　the　environment　and　provides　
relatively　sophisticated　assistance　in　finding　objects　in　the　

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environment　

III。　Organizational　Processes　in　Perception　
A。　Perceptual　Organization　refers　to　the　processes　that　put　sensory　information　together　to　
give　you　the　perception　of　coherence。　What　a　person　experiences　as　a　result　of　these　
processes　is　called　a　percept。　
B。　Figure；　Ground；　and　Closure　
1。　A　figure　is　an　object　in　the　foreground　of　the　visual　field　
2。　The　ground　is　the　background　against　which　the　object　is　seen　
3。　There　is　a　strong　tendency　to　perceive　a　figure　as　being　in　front　of　a　
ground　
4。　Illusory　contours　are　divisions　or　regions　that　do　not　exist　in　the　distal　
stimulus；　but　do　exist　in　the　proximal　experience　of　the　stimulus　
5。　Closure　is　a　powerful　organizing　process　that　fills　in　missing　areas　
and　makes　inplete　figures　or　patterns　appear　plete　
C。　Principles　of　Perceptual　Grouping　
1。　The　Law　of　Proximity　states　that　all　else　being　equal；　the　nearest　
elements　are　grouped　together　
2。　The　Law　of　Similarity　states　that　all　else　being　equal；　the　most　similar　
elements　are　grouped　together　
3。　The　Law　of　mon　Fate　states　that　all　else　being　equal；　elements　
moving　in　the　same　direction　and　at　the　same　rate　of　speed　are　
grouped　together　
4。　The　Law　of　Pragnanz　is　a　general　law　that　states　that　individuals　
perceive　the　simplest　organization　that　fits　the　stimulus　pattern　
D。　Spatial　and　Temporal　Integration　
1。　Individuals　are　often　unable　to　detect　when　a　whole　object　has　
changed　from　one　fixation　to　another　
2。　A　fixation　is　one　glance　or　brief　glimpse　
E。　Motion　Perception　
1。　Motion　perception　requires　parison　across　different　fixations　of　
the　world　and　is　dependent　on　reference　frame　
2。　Induced　motion　occurs　when　a　stationary　object　appears　to　be　moving　
because　a　reference　frame　to　which　it　is　being　pared　is　moving。　
There　is　a　tendency　for　the　visual　system　to　take　a　larger；　surrounding　
figure　as　the　reference　frame　for　a　smaller　figure　inside　it。　
3。　The　simplest　form　of　apparent　motion　is　the　phi　phenomenon；　which　
occurs　when　two　stationary　spots　of　light　are　turned　on　and　off　
alternately　very　quickly。　It　appears　that　a　single　light　is　moving　back　
and　forth　between　the　two　spots　of　light。　
F。　Depth　Perception　
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1。　Depth　perception　requires　that　the　visual　system　extract　three…
dimensional　representations　from　two…dimensional　information　
2。　Vision　relies　on　depth　cues　that　allow　the　interpretation　of　sensory　
input　
G。　Binocular　and　Motion　Cues　
1。　Binocular　disparity　is　the　displacement　between　the　horizontal　
positions　of　corresponding　images　in　the　two　eyes　
2。