心理学与生活-第32章

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3。　According　to　Zimbardo　and　Gerrig；　there　appears　to　be　a　developmental　timetable　for　
dreams　that　parallels　our　cognitive　developmental　pathway；　with　children　being　the　
example　given。　If　this　premise　is　valid；　what　sort　of　dreams　might　we　expect　to　see　at　the　
opposite　end　of　the　spectrum；　during　old　age？　
4。　Ask　your　students　if　they　have　ever　had　a　lucid　dream。　Have　students　share　their　lucid　
experiences。　Students　find　this　subject　fascinating；　and　the　topic　often　leads　to　lively　
discussion　concerning　the　nature　of　consciousness　and　the　nature　of　reality。　How　would　
students　use　the　extra　time　of　consciousness　while　they　are　lucid　in　their　dreams？　Would　
they　use　it　differently　than　they　would　normal　consciousness？　Why　or　why　not？　
5。　Most　sleep　researchers　argue　that　people　need　an　average　of　8　hours　of　sleep　per　day　to　be　
fully　rested　and　alert。　First；　you　might　ask　students　why　they　think　this　is；　as　most　people　
today　do　not　physically　exert　themselves　enough　to　require　8　hours　of　sleep　to　physically　
recharge　themselves。　Second；　you　might　ask　students　how　much　sleep　they　are　getting　each　
night。　My　guess　is　most　of　them　are　not　getting　the　remended　8　hours　per　night。　But　
many　of　them　are　probably　not　feeling　overtired　or　sleep　deprived。　While　the　average　
amount　of　required　sleep　is　8　hours；　many　people　function　quite　well　on　6　or　7　hours　per　
night；　while　others　need　9　or　10　hours　per　night。　I　had　a　professor　in　graduate　school　who　
functioned　quite　effectively　for　years　on　only　3　or　4　hours　per　night！　The　important　thing　for　
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students　to　know　is　that　not　everyone　needs　the　average；　but　knowing　how　much　sleep　
your　body　needs　and　adjusting　your　schedule　so　that　you　are　getting　what　you　need　is　
crucial　to　feeling　rested。　

6。　Many　people　sleep　somewhat　more　when　they　are　mildly　depressed　or　experience　mild　to　
moderate　stress。　Some　students　who　are　juggling　school；　work；　and　family/social　life　find　
that　they　are　nodding　off　every　time　they　sit　down　or　relax；　but　are　still　consistently　
exhausted。　If　they　add　up　all　the　hours　they　are　“napping；”　it　can　add　up　to　11　or　12　hours　
a　day。　Of　course；　it　is　not　good　quality　sleep；　which　means　it　doesn’t　help　them　feel　
“recharged”　or　well　rested。　When　I　was　a　psychology　intern　at　a　university　counseling　
center；　it　was　such　a　mon　phenomenon　we　began　calling　it　“student　sleep　syndrome。”　
Often；　students　feel　even　worse　when　this　occurs　because　they　begin　to　wonder　what’s　
wrong　with　them；　which　pounds　their　stress。　Most　students　are　relieved　to　know　that　
this　condition　is　mon　and　often　disappears　when　stress　levels　are　reduced。　Usually；　
when　a　student　takes　a　term　off　or　cuts　back　on　his　or　her　schedule；　the　condition　
disappears。　However；　as　with　any　dramatic　or　prolonged　change　in　energy　level　or　
physical　condition；　students　should　get　a　plete　physical　examination　from　their　
physician　before　assuming　it　is　just　a　symptom　of　stress。　
7。　Ask　students　to　describe　what　they　do　to　fall　asleep　and　how　long　it　usually　takes　them。　
You　will　usually　find　that　those　students　who　get　a　reasonable　amount　of　physical　exercise　
during　the　day；　allow　themselves　at　least　an　hour　of　“winding　down　time”　before　they　go　to　
bed；　and　go　to　bed　at　similar　times　each　night　will　tend　to　go　to　sleep　faster　than　those　who　
do　not　exercise；　have　erratic　schedules；　and　too　many　presleep　activities。　Often；　insomnia　
can　be　managed　just　by　changing　their　daily　schedules　and　presleep　routines。　
8。　Ask　students　what　they　do　when　they　have　bouts　of　insomnia。　I've　heard　everything　from　
counting　sheep　to　having　sex。　Clearly　there　is　no　one　technique　that　works　for　everyone。　
But　there　are　many　techniques　that　work　well　for　at　least　some　people。　You　can　discuss　
how　many　techniques；　such　as　progressive　relaxation；　deep　breathing；　and　fantasy；　can　be　
used　to　induce　a　relaxed　state　patible　with　sleep　induction。　Some　insomnia　is　caused　
because　people；　go　to　bed　hungry　or　“wired”　from　drinking　beverages　loaded　with　caffeine。　
Eating　a　snack　so　that　you　are　not　experiencing　hunger　pains；　and　making　sure　what　you　
eat　is　not　loaded　with　caffeine　and　sugar；　can　also　induce　drowsiness　and　relaxation。　
While　sleeping　pills　are　an　option；　as　the　text　suggests；　they　are　usually　not　an　ideal　option　
because　of　side　effects　and　people’s　tendency　to　bee　dependent　on　them。　
SUPPLEMENTAL　LECTURE　MATERIAL　

Unattended　Information　and　the　“Cocktail　Party　Phenomenon”　

It　has　happened　to　all　of　us。　You　are　at　an　office　party；　a　Christmas　party；　or　a　gathering　of　friends　
at　the　home　of　a　neighbor　and　you　are　engaged　in　conversation　with　a　friend　about　the　merits　of　
Golden　Retrievers　pared　to　German　Shepherds。　More　people　are　talking　behind　you；　but　you　
are　not　paying　attention　to　their　conversation。　Suddenly；　you　hear　your　name　mentioned　by　one　of　
the　individuals　engaged　in　the　conversation　behind　you。　You　bee　unable　to　concentrate　on　the　
puppy　discussion；　because　you　are　too　busy　trying　to　hear　what　the　other　people　are　saying　about　

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you。　You　know　you　were　not　deliberately　eavesdropping　on　this　conversation；　but　you　know　that　
you　heard　your　name。　Is　it　possible　that　you　were　unconsciously　eavesdropping？　

You　have　just　experienced　what　Broadbent　and　Cherry　referred　to　as　the　“Cocktail　Party　
Phenomenon”。　Part　of　consciousness　is　attention。　We　must　attend　to　ining　stimuli　in　order　to　
process　it　and　act　on　it　in　an　appropriate　manner。　Does　that　imply　that　in　the　case　presented　above；　
the　listener　was　attending　to　the　conversation　behind　her？　Possibly；　although　the　attention　being　
paid　to　that　conversation　was　not　intentional。　The　listener　in　this　conversation　was　engaged　in　
what　is　known　as　dichotic　listening；　which　refers　to　hearing　two　channels　of　sound；　one　in　each　
ear；　at　the　same　time。　In　dichotic　listening；　we　listen；　or　shadow；　the　message　to　which　we　are　
attending；　and　tune　out　the　second；　unattended　message。　Nonetheless；　some　characteristics　of　that　
unshadowed　message　still　get　through。　The　individual　above　was　shadowing　the　message　in　
which　she　was　engaged　and；　until　hearing　her　name；　could　not　have　told　us　the　content　or　
characteristics　of　the　unshadowed　（unattended）　message　of　conversation。　How　then；　did　she　
manage　to　hear　her　name；　if　she　was　not　attending　to　the　message？　

Triesman　offers　as　an　explanation　the　fact　that　in　dichotic　listening；　attention　acts　as　an　attenuator；　
in　that　it　turns　down　the　volume　on　unattended　channels；　but　does　not　pletely　block　them　out。　
Moray　took　this　notion　a　bit　further；　observing　that　it　is　very　difficult　to　ignore　the　sounds　of　our　
own　names；　even　if　that　sound　es　in　on　an　unattended　channel。　Deutsch　and　Deutsch；　followed　
by　Norman；　proposed　that　all　channels　that　reach　the　system　get　some　degree　of　attention　and　
analysis。　Specifically；　the　channels　get　attended　to　enough　to　be　represented　in　long…term　memory。　
While　none　of　these　models　pletely　explains　the　attentional　aspect　of　consciousness；　they　do　at　
least　give　us　some　insights　as　to　why　we　suddenly　find　ourselves　“eavesdropping”　on　the　
conversations　of　others；　once　we　have　heard　them　mention　our　names。　

Circadian　Rhythms　

There　is　a　daily　cycle　in　addition　to　sleep　cycles　that　helps　regulate　our　functioning。　People　and　
other　mammals　have　a　biological　clock　that　controls　their　daily　rhythm；　known　as　the　circadian　
rhythm。　Bodily　temperatures；　endocrine　secretions；　metabolism；　and　other　bodily　functions　follow　
similar　circadian　rhythms。　Both　internal　controls；　from　the　hypothalamus　in　the　brain；　and　external　
controls　such　as　clocks；　meal　times；　light　and　dark；　and　the　seasonal　changes　direct　us　to　24…hour　
circadian　rhythms。　If　individuals　live　in　caves　with　artificial　light；　but　no　clock；　eating　and　sleeping　
whenever　they　want；　circadian　rhythms　tend　to　occur　in　25…hour　cycles。　

People　usually　fall　into　a　rhythm　between　24　and　28　hours　long；　although　sleep—wake　cycles　of　up　
to　50　hours　have　been　observed。　Excessively　long　circadian　rhythms　can　play　havoc　with　one’s　life；　
causing　one　to　be　unable　to　sleep　at　an　appropriate　hour　or　to　feel　sleepy　part　of　the　normal　working　
day。　The　results　can　be　job　loss　and　interpersonal　conflict。　Such　afflictions　can　be　interpreted　as　
sleep…onset　insomnia　and/or　excessive　sleepiness。　Treatment　of　such　sleep　disorders　centers　on　
enforcing　wakefulness　at　certain　times。　

Along　with　“autonomic”　storms　of　REM　sleep　that　are　most　intense　in　the　morning　hours；　changes　
in　circadian　rhythms　result　in　a　lowering　of　body　temperature。　One　medical　consequence　of　this　
“vulnerable”　state　is　the　reported　high　incidence　of　cardiac　failures　and　heart　attacks　in　early　
morning　hours。　“Jet　lag”　is　also　an　effect　of　biological　circadian　rhythms　falling　out　of　synchrony　
with　local　time　as　we　travel　east　or　west　across　time　zones。　The　traveler　develops　a　double　circadian　
rhythm；　the　new　one　added　to　the　old。　This　leads　to　double　peaks　and　valleys　of　energy。　Over　a　few　
days；　the　new　circadian　rhythm　takes　over　as　the　body　and　brain　reset　their　biological　clock　to　local　
time。　

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CHAPTER　6：　MIND；　CONSCIOUSNESS；　AND　ALTERED　STATES　

The　Stuff　of　Which　Dreams　Are　Made　

Throughout　history；　and　probably　prehistory　as　well；　humans　have　thought　that　dreams　have　
special　significance；　that　they　have　a　divine　source；　predict　future　events；　or　prescribe　a　course　of　
action。　A　primary　duty　of　wise　elders　in　many　cultures　was　to　interpret　dreams。　One　wonders　how　
preliterate　tribes　react　to　their　dreams；　to　these　images　that　invade　their　sleep。　Perhaps　they　think　
that　some　alien　being　has　taken　over　their　body　or　that　they　are　receiving　a　message　from　the　spirits　
of　the　earth　or　the　demons　of　the　forest。　

The　idea　that　dreams　have　personal　meaning　was　introduced　in　modern　times　by　Freud　when　he　
published　The　Interpretation　of　Dreams　in　1900。　Although　it　took　six　years　to　sell　the　first　printing　of　
600　copies；　it　has　bee　a　classic。　Freud　argued　that　“dreams　are　impartial；　spontaneous　products　
of　the　unconscious　psyche；　they　show　us　the　unvarnished　truth。”　Freud　thought　that　the　vigilance　
of　the　ego　relaxed　during　sleep；　allowing　primitive　and　forbidden　sexual　and　aggressive　urges　to　
escape　from　the　unconscious。　This　material　was　so　threatening　to　our　waking　state　of　
consciousness　that　the　disgusting　desires　of　the　unconscious　were　disguised　in　dreams。　It　is　
interesting　to　note　that　Freud；　like　Biblical　characters　and　people　of　the　past；　thought　that　only　a　
wise　man　or　woman　（or　psychoanalyst）　could　interpret　dreams　correctly。　

Freud　thought　that　there　was　a　universal　set　of　symbols　used　by　the　unconscious　to　disguise　the　
hidden　content　of　dreams。　For　example；　dreams　of　flying　signify　the　desire　for　sexual　adventure；　
elongated　objects　such　as　trees　and　pencils　symbolize　the　penis；　containers；　such　as　closets；　rooms；　
ovens；　and　automobiles　represent　the　vagina；　and　sexual　intercourse　is　disguised　as　riding　a　horse　
or　shooting　a　gun。　

Carl　Jung　was　a　member　of　Freud’s　inner　circle；　and　later　broke　away