心理学与生活-第33章

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or　shooting　a　gun。　

Carl　Jung　was　a　member　of　Freud’s　inner　circle；　and　later　broke　away　from　Freud　because　of　
theoretical　disagreements。　He　believed　that　the　“general　function　of　dreams　is　to　restore　
psychological　balance；”　and　that　important　messages　in　dreams　could　only　be　interpreted　from　a　
series　of　dreams　that　occurred　over　time。　Jung　estimated　that　he　analyzed　at　least　80；000　dreams　
during　his　professional　career。　

Anecdotal　evidence　to　support　Freud　and　Jung’s　ideas　about　dreams　exists；　but　their　theories　
cannot　be　experimentally　supported　or　rejected　because　of　problems　in　doing　the　necessary　
research。　Research　on　dreaming　was　stimulated　in　the　early　1950s　when　two　investigators；　
Aserinsky　and　Kleitman　at　the　University　of　Chicago；　established　the　relationship　between　REM　
sleep　and　dreaming；　but　their　research　does　not　answer　the　questions　posed　by　the　theories　of　Freud　
and　Jung。　Some　of　the　more　frequently　asked　questions　about　dreams　and　dreaming　follow。　

DOES　EVERYONE　DREAM？　

Some　people　claim　that　they　never　dream；　but　research　tells　us　that　everyone　dreams。　People　who　
claim　that　they　do　not　dream　simply　do　not　remember　their　dreams。　Dreams　are　usually　not　stored　
in　long…term　memory；　and　they　are　lost　unless　they　are　reviewed　or　recorded　immediately　on　
waking；　before　other　material　replaces　them　in　the　short…term　memory。　

ARE　WE　MORE　LIKELY　TO　HAVE　GOOD　DREAMS　OR　BAD　DREAMS？　

Investigators　who　have　collected　and　studied　dreams　have　found　that　bad　dreams　are　more　
monly　recalled　than　good　dreams。　Dreams　are　more　likely　to　involve　failure；　misfortune；　and　
frustration　than　success　and　pleasant　emotions。　

WHAT　DO　PEOPLE　DREAM　ABOUT？　

Falling　or　being　chased　are　among　the　most　mon　dream　themes　reported。　The　appearance　of　
celebrities　in　dreams　is　also　mon。　Many　dreams　involve　frustration：　trying　repeatedly　but　

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unsuccessfully　to　do　something；　finding　yourself　nude　in　public　places；　arriving　late　to　catch　a　
plane　or　to　take　an　exam；　and　losing　important　papers　or　treasured　objects。　Sex　is　not　among　the　
more　mon　dream　themes。　The　occurrence　of　penile　and　clitoral　erections　during　dreams　is　a　
conitant　of　the　REM　state；　and　is　apparently　unrelated　to　the　content　of　the　dream。　

CAN　PEOPLE　CONTROL　THE　CONTENTS　OF　THEIR　DREAMS？　

Research　shows　that　people　do　have　some　control　over　their　dreams；　and　that　this　ability　to　have　

“lucid　dreams”　can　be　taught。　Stephen　LaBerge；　the　leading　researcher　on　lucid　dreams；　relates　the　
experience　of　lucid　dreaming　to　the　“Holodeck”　on　Star　Trek　the　New　Generation。　Once　a　person　is　
lucid　in　a　dream；　they　can　take　control　of　it　and　direct　its　content　and　conclusion。　LaBerge　also　
suggests　that　lucid　dreaming　may　have　more　pragmatic　uses　than　just　entertainment。　The　
additional　time　of　consciousness　while　dreaming　can　be　used　to　work　through　personal　problems；　
planning；　and　reviewing　past　events。　Such　lucid　reflection　while　in　a　relaxed　sleep　state　may　in　the　
future　be　shown　to　enhance　psychological　health。　It　has　been　reported　that　the　Senoi　people　of　
Malaysia　teach　children　to　control　their　dreams　from　an　early　age。　Have　you　ever　had　a　“lucid”　
dream？　

One　simple　technique　used　to　teach　lucid　dreaming　is　to　bee　more　“mindful”　of　your　state　of　
consciousness　by　repeatedly　asking　yourself；　“Am　I　dreaming？”　during　the　day。　Once　in　the　habit　
of　asking　yourself　this　simple　question　while　awake；　you　may　ask　the　same　question　while　
dreaming。　Answering　the　question　“yes”　may　lead　to　the　onset　of　a　lucid　dream。　

WHY　DO　PEOPLE　DREAM？　

Several　explanations　for　dreaming　have　been　offered。　Freud　thought　dreams　preserved　our　sanity　
by　allowing　us　to　gratify　forbidden　or　unrealistic　wishes。　Information…processing　theorists　suggest　
that　the　function　of　dreams　is　to　assimilate　new　data　into　memory　and　to　jettison　mental　garbage。　
The　activation…synthesis　theory　says　that　dreams　result　when　the　brain　tries　to　make　sense　of　
random　neural　firing　that　occurs　during　sleep。　

DO　PEOPLE　NEED　TO　DREAM？　

A　number　of　studies　have　been　done　on　dream　deprivation。　Participants　are　awakened　as　soon　as　
rapid　eye　movements　begin　to　occur。　The　results　show　that　as　dream　deprivation　continues；　REM　
periods　occur　more　and　more　frequently；　and　participants　bee　harder　to　arouse。　In　addition；　
participants　who　have　been　dream　deprived　dream　more　than　usual　when　they　are　allowed　to　sleep　
normally。　Although　some　participants　have　bee　irritable　after　a　night　or　two　of　dream　
deprivation；　most　seem　to　adjust　to　it。　We　do　not　know　what　effect　it　would　have　on　a　person　if　
dream　deprivation　were　continued　over　an　extended　period。　

WHAT　SHOULD　YOU　DO　IF　YOU　WANT　TO　REMEMBER　YOUR　DREAMS？　

Dreams　are　fragile；　so　if　you　want　to　remember　them　you　will　need　to　be　able　to　record　them　with　a　
minimum　of　effort。　If　remembering　your　dreams　is　important　to　you；　try　the　following　tips：　

1。　Keep　writing　material　or　a　tape　recorder　next　to　your　bed；　and　be　sure　that　you　can　turn　on　
a　light　to　write　by　without　getting　out　of　bed。　
2。　Before　going　to　bed；　tell　yourself　that　you　are　going　to　wake　up　after　a　dream。　If　you　are　
unable　to　obey　your　mand；　try　setting　a　gentle　alarm　for　two　hours　after　retirement　and　
every　two　hours　thereafter。　
3。　When　you　wake　up；　keep　your　eyes　closed；　and　review　the　dream　before　you　record　it。　
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4。　Make　a　questionnaire　or　checklist　to　remind　you　of　the　information　you　want　to　record。　
This　might　include　such　things　as　the　setting；　actors；　activities；　outes；　and；　perhaps　
most　important；　the　emotional　tone　of　the　dream。　
THE　PARADOXICAL　NATURE　OF　REM　

REM　sleep　has　been　referred　to　as　paradoxical　sleep；　meaning　that　during　REM　sleep；　the　activity　of　
the　brain　closely　approximates　that　of　waking　state　activity。　We　know　that　we　dream　during　REM；　
and　that　we　have　rapid　eye　movements　for　which　this　state　is　named；　but　what　other　things　are　
happening　that　make　this　state　“approximately”　that　of　the　waking　state？　Several　manifestations　of　
this　sleep　state　insofar　as　we　are　able　to　determine；　are　unique　to　REM。　These　things　apparently　
happen　during　REM　and　at　no　other　time　during　the　sleep　cycle。　What　are　they？　

ATONIA　

During　REM　sleep；　we　experience　atonia—we　lose　muscle　tone；　our　muscles　bee　flaccid；　and　we　
are　virtually　paralyzed。　This　manifestation　disappears　within　a　fraction　of　a　second　following　
waking；　but　can　be　a　bit　scary　if　we　try　to　get　out　of　bed　immediately　on　waking；　only　to　find　that　we　
cannot　do　so；　at　least　instantaneously。　The　reason　for　atonia　is　that　neural　messages　from　the　brain　
stem　going　to　the　major　muscle　groups　are　inhibited　during　REM。　These　messages　originate　in　the　
pons；　a　structure　that　sits　just　at　the　top　of　the　brain　stem；　and　the　inhibition　of　these　neural　
impulses　has　probably　kept　many　of　us　from　injuring　ourselves　if　we　were　to　wander　around　in　a　
not　quite　conscious　state。　

SEXUAL　AROUSAL　

Both　males　and　females　experience　sexual　arousal—evinced　by　tumescence　in　males　and　
lubrication　and　engorgement　of　genital　tissues　in　females—during　REM　sleep。　

OTHER　PHYSIOLOGICAL　CHANGES　

Increases　in　both　blood　pressure　and　heart　rate　occur　during　REM。　These　functions　increase　from　
the　low　levels　seen　during　Stage　4　sleep　to　levels　that　closely　approximate　those　of　a　waking　state　of　
consciousness。　

MEMORY　PROCESSES　

Thought　and　memory　organization　also　occur　during　REM；　as　housekeeping　type　of　functions。　
Most　of　us　have　awakened　to　discover　that　a　problem　that　was　vexing　us　the　night　before　suddenly　
seems　to　have　“solved　itself”　over　the　course　of　the　night；　and　we　wonder　why　we　did　not　see　the　
solution　yesterday。　Perhaps　this　aspect　of　REM　explains　why　our　mothers　told　us　not　to　worry　
because　“everything　will　be　better　in　the　morning。”　

INCORPORATION　OF　ENVIRONMENTAL　STIMULUS　

Environmental　sounds　are　frequently　incorporated　into　dreams。　The　sound　of　a　car　backfiring　in　
the　street　outside　may　be　incorporated　into　one’s　dreams　as　a　gunshot；　or　a　slamming　of　a　door；　
while　the　thunderclap　in　a　thunderstorm　may　be　incorporated　into　the　dreams　of　bat　veterans　
as　ining　artillery　fire。　As　you　can　see；　far　from　being　a　truly　“sleeping”　state；　REM　sleep　is　very　
susceptible　to　impact　by　the　outside　environment。　

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TIMELINE　

Year　Event　
1637　Rene　Descartes　published　Discourse　on　Method。　
1815　Napoleon　was　defeated　at　the　battle　of　Waterloo　and　banished　to　St。　Helena。　
18611865　
The　American　Civil　War　was　fought。　
1881　Pasteur　and　Koch　discovered　the　germ　theory　of　disease。　
1902　William　James　published　The　Varieties　of　Religious　Experience。　
1917　The　Bolshevik　Revolution　was　fought　in　Russia。　
1932　Carl　Jung　published　Modern　Man　in　Search　of　a　Soul。　
1938　d…Lysergic　Acid　Diethylamide…25　（LSD）　was　discovered　by　Dr。　Albert　Hoffman。　
1948　Israel　became　an　independent　nation。　
1953　The　genetic　code　was　broken。　
1954　Aldous　Huxley　published　The　Doors　of　Perception。　
1985　Stephen　LaBerge　published　Lucid　Dreaming。　

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SUGGESTIONS　FOR　FURTHER　READINGS　

Baars；　B。；　&　Wright　I。　（1997）。　In　the　Theater　of　Consciousness：　The　Workspace　of　the　Mind。　New　York：　
Oxford　University　Press。　Reviews　research　on　consciousness　and　introduces　the　global　
workspace　theory；　in　which　consciousness　occupies　a　workspace　much　like　the　stage　in　a　
theater。　

Donald；　M。　（1991）。　Origins　of　the　Modern　Mind：　Three　Stages　in　the　Evolution　of　Culture　and　Cognition。　
Cambridge；　MA：　Harvard　University　Press。　A　fascinating　perspective　on　modern　man；　
incorporating　data　from　the　field　of　cultural　anthropology；　linguistics；　parative　anatomy；　
parative　neuroanatomy；　and　cognition　to　offer　an　explanation　of　how　we　got　“here”　from　
“there。”　

Gazzaniga；　M。　S。　（1988）。　Mind　Matters：　How　Mind　and　Brain　Interact　to　Create　Our　Conscious　Lives。　
Boston：　Houghton　Mifflin。　Discusses　mental　disorders；　psychopathology；　and　the　role　of　
neuropsychology　in　these　issues。　

Gazzaniga；　M。　S。　（1992）。　Nature’s　Mind：　The　Biological　Roots　of　Thinking；　Emotions；　Sexuality；　
Language；　and　Intelligence。　New　York：　Basic　Books。　Shows　how　natural　selection　influences　
everything　from　depression；　to　language　development；　to　substance　abuse。　Presents　the　nature　
versus　nurture　controversy　in　a　new　light。　An　excellent　book　by　an　eminent　scientist。　

Goleman；　D。；　Wilber；　K。；　Tart；　C。；　&　Walsh；　R。　（1993）。　The　Riddle　of　Consciousness。　Los　Angeles：　
Perigee　Books。　Provides　four　different　views　on　consciousness　by　four　leading　thinkers　in　the　
field。　

Herzog；　P。　S。　（1991）。　Conscious　and　Unconscious：　Freud’s　Dynamic　Distinction　Reconsidered。　Madison；　
CT：　International　Universities　Press。　A　new　perspective　on　consciousness　and　unconsciousness；　
from　the　psychoanalytic　position。　

Horowitz；　M。　J。　（ed。）。　（1988）。　Psychodynamics　and　Cognition。　Chicago：　University　of　Chicago　Press。　
Based　on　papers　presented　at　a　workshop　held　at　the　Center　for　Advanced　Study　in　the　
Behavioral　Sciences；　Stanford　University；　and　sponsored