心理学与生活-第35章

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Stimulus　can　bee　a　Conditioned　Stimulus　（CS）–a　previously　
neutral　stimulus　that　es　to　elicit　a　conditioned　response。　

e）　A　Conditioned　Stimulus；　after　being　paired　with　the　UCS；　
acquires　the　power　to　elicit　the　UCR。　When　the　UCR　is　elicited　
by　the　CS；　however；　it　is　called　the　Conditioned　Response　
（CR）。　

f）　A　Conditioned　Response　is　produced　by　the　presentation　of　the　
CS　

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g）　In　summary；　nature　provides　the　association　between　the　
Unconditioned　Stimulus　and　the　Unconditioned　Response。　By　
repeatedly　pairing　the　Conditioned　Stimulus　with　the　
Unconditioned　Stimulus；　the　Conditioned　Stimulus　begins　to　elicit　
a　Conditioned　Response。　

B。　Processes　of　Conditioning　
1。　Acquisition　is　the　process　by　which　the　CR　is　first　elicited　by　the　CS　and　
by　which　elicitation　gradually　increases　in　frequency　over　repeated　
trials　
2。　Timing　is　critical　in　classical　conditioning。　The　UCS　and　the　CS　must　
be　presented　close　enough　together　so　that　they　are　perceived　to　be　
associated。　Four　types　of　temporal　patterns　are　used　in　research。　They　
are：　
a）　Delayed　Conditioning；　in　which　the　CS　es　prior　to　and　
stays　on　at　least　until　the　UCS　is　presented。　Usually　the　most　
effective　conditioning　paradigm。　The　optimal　time　interval　
between　the　UCS　and　the　CS　varies　depending　on　the　nature　
of　the　CS　and　the　CR。　

b）　Trace　Conditioning；　in　which　the　CS　is　turned　off　before　the　
UCS　is　presented。　

c）　Simultaneous　Conditioning；　in　which　the　CS　and　the　UCS　are　
presented　at　the　same　time。　Conditioning　is　generally　poor　
with　this　paradigm。　

d）　Backward　Conditioning；　in　which　the　CS　is　presented　after　the　
UCS。　Conditioning　is　generally　very　poor　with　this　paradigm。　

3。　Extinction　is　said　to　have　occurred　when　the　CR　no　longer　appears　in　
the　presence　of　the　CS　
4。　Spontaneous　Recovery；　reappearance　of　a　weak　CR　when　the　CS　is　
presented　again　after　extinction；　without　renewed　pairing　with　the　
UCS　
5。　If　the　UCS　and　the　CS　are　again　paired　after　extinction；　the　UCS　and　
the　CS　association　will　be　learned　more　quickly。　The　difference　in　the　
time　taken　to　learn　the　association　initially　and　to　relearn　the　
association　after　extinction　is　called　Savings。　

6。　Stimulus　Generalization　is　the　extension　of　elicitation　of　the　CR　to　
stimuli　similar　to　the　CS。　If　the　CS　is　a　tone；　a　similar　tone　may　produce　
the　CR。　
7。　Stimulus　Discrimination　is　the　process　by　which　an　organism　learns　to　
respond　differently　to　stimuli　that　are　distinct　from　but　similar　to　the　
CS　
C。　Focus　on　Acquisition　
1。　Robert　Rescorla’s　work　demonstrated　that　contingency；　not　just　
contiguity；　is　necessary　for　classical　conditioning　to　occur　
2。　In　addition　to　contingency；　the　CS　must　reliably　predict　the　UCS　
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3。　The　informativeness　of　the　CS　is　also　crucial　to　classical　conditioning　
4。　Blocking　is　the　ability　of　the　first　CS　to　reduce　the　informativeness　of　
the　second　CS　because　of　the　organism’s　previous　experience　
5。　A　Neutral　Stimulus　will　only　bee　a　Conditioned　Stimulus　if　it　is　
both　appropriately　contingent　and　informative　
D。　Applications　of　Classical　Conditioning　
1。　Classical　conditioning　does　not　involve　conscious　thought；　but　does　
involve　emotions　and　preferences　
2。　Fear　conditioning　involves　the　pairing　of　a　neutral　stimulus　with　a　fear…
provoking　object。　Fear　conditioning　is　a　powerful　form　of　classical　
conditioning；　is　resistant　to　extinction；　and　can　occur　after　only　one　
pairing　of　the　CS　and　the　UCS。　
3。　Learning　to　Be　a　Drug　Addict　
a）　If　a　drug　addict　does　drugs　in　the　same　ritualistic　manner　in　
the　same　environment　consistently；　the　ritualistic　manner　and　
the　environment　themselves　may　bee　CS。　They　e　to　
predict　the　occurrence　of　the　UCS；　the　drug；　and　they　warn　the　
body　that　the　drug　is　about　to　be　done。　The　body　can　then　
prepare　a　pensatory　response　that　allows　the　body；　in　an　
effort　to　maintain　homeostasis；　to　counteract　partially　the　
impact　of　the　drug。　

b）　Because　of　this　pensatory　response；　if　the　drug　is　taken　in　
the　same　manner　and　in　the　same　environment　consistently；　
greater　doses　of　the　drug　are　needed　to　maintain　the　same　
high。　If；　after　doing　drugs　in　the　same　environment　repeatedly；　
the　drug　user　does　drugs　in　a　new　environment；　the　CS　（the　
environment）　will　not　be　present；　and　the　body　will　not　
produce　the　pensatory　response。　Because　the　body　is　not　
prepared　for　ingestion　of　the　drug；　the　drug　user　is　much　more　
likely　to　overdose。　

4。　Harnessing　Classical　Conditioning　
a）　Psychoneuroimmunology　has　emerged　to　explore　the　interaction　
of　psychology；　the　nervous　system；　and　the　immune　system。　
One　goal　of　psychoneuroimmunology　is　to　allow　conditioning　
to　replace　high　doses　of　medications　that　have　serious　side　
effects。　As　with　drug　users　for　which　the　environment　
bees　a　CS；　the　environment　can　be　associated　with　
beneficial　drugs　so　that　the　environment　elicits　a　positive　
conditioned　response。　

III。　Operant　Conditioning：　Learning　About　Consequences　
A。　The　Law　of　Effect　
1。　The　Law　of　Effect；　developed　by　Edward　Thorndike；　simply　states　that　
behaviors　that　are　followed　by　pleasant；　positive　consequences　are　
likely　to　increase　in　frequency　
2。　For　Thorndike；　learning　involved　an　association　between　a　stimulus　
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and　a　response；　a　stimulus–response　connection　

3。　These　stimulus–response　connections　are　learned　gradually　and　
mechanistically　through　blind　trial　and　error　
B。　Experimental　Analysis　of　Behavior　
1。　B。　F。　Skinner　outlined　a　research　program　called　the　experimental　
analysis　of　behavior；　whose　purpose　was　to　discover　the　ways　that　
environmental　conditions　affect　the　likelihood　that　a　given　response　
will　occur　
2。　Operant　Conditioning　procedures　were　developed　by　Skinner　to　allow　
the　experimental　analysis　of　behavior　and　modify　the　probability　of　
different　types　of　operant　behavior　as　a　function　of　the　environmental　
consequences　they　produce　
3。　An　Operant　is　any　behavior　that　is　emitted　by　an　organism　and　can　be　
characterized　in　terms　of　the　observable　effects　it　has　on　the　
environment　
C。　Reinforcement　Contingencies　
1。　A　reinforcement　contingency　is　a　consistent　relationship　between　a　
response　and　the　changes　in　the　environment　that　it　produces　
2。　A　reinforcer　is　any　stimulus　that；　when　made　contingent　on　a　response；　
increases　the　probability　of　that　response　
a）　A　Positive　Reinforcer　is　any　stimulus　that—when　made　
contingent　on　a　behavior—increases　the　probability　of　that　
behavior　over　time　

b）　A　Negative　Reinforcer　is　any　stimulus　that；　when　removed；　
reduced；　or　prevented；　increases　the　probability　of　a　given　
response　over　time　

3。　Operant　Extinction　occurs　as　reinforcement　is　withheld　
4。　A　Punisher　is　any　stimulus　that—when　it　is　made　contingent　on　a　
response—decreases　the　probability　of　that　response　over　time。　
a）　A　Positive　Punisher　is　when　a　behavior　is　followed　by　the　
delivery　of　an　aversive　stimulus　

b）　A　Negative　Punisher　is　when　a　behavior　is　followed　by　the　
removal　of　an　appetitive；　or　positive；　stimulus　

5。　Punishment　always　reduces　the　probability　of　a　response　occurring　
6。　Reinforcement　always　increases　the　probability　of　a　response　occurring　
7。　Discriminative　Stimuli；　through　their　associations　with　reinforcement　
or　punishment；　e　to　set　the　context　for　that　behavior　
8。　The　Three…Term　Contingency　is　the　sequence　of　discriminative　stimulus–　
behavior–consequence　that　Skinner　believed　could　explain　most　human　
behavior　

9。　Behavior　analysts　assume　that　behaviors；　even　apparently　self…
destructive　and　irrational　behaviors；　persist　because　they　are　being　
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reinforced　

10。　Secondary　gains　are　subtle　reinforcers；　such　as　attention；　sympathy；　or　
release　from　responsibility；　that　reinforce　behaviors　that　may　have　
obvious　associated　negative　consequences　
D。　Properties　of　Reinforcers　
1。　Primary　reinforcers；　such　as　food　and　water；　are　reinforcers　that　are　
biologically　determined　
2。　Conditioned　reinforcers　are　otherwise　neutral　stimuli　that　have；　over　
time；　bee　associated　with　primary　reinforcers。　Money；　grades；　
smiles　of　approval；　and　gold　stars　can　all　act　as　conditioned　
reinforcers。　
a）　Teachers　and　researchers　often　find　conditioned　reinforcers　
more　effective　and　easier　to　use　than　primary　reinforcers　
because：　

（i）　Few　primary　reinforcers　are　available　in　the　classroom　
（ii）　Conditioned　reinforcers　can　be　dispensed　rapidly　
（iii）　Conditioned　reinforcers　are　portable　
（iv）　The　reinforcing　effect　of　conditioned　reinforcers　may　be　
more　immediate　
b）　Token　economies　are　contexts；　such　as　psychiatric　hospitals　
and　prisons；　in　which　desired　behaviors　are　explicitly　defined　
and　in　which　tokens　are　given　by　staff　for　performance　of　
these　behaviors。　The　tokens　can　later　be　redeemed　for　
privileges　or　goods。　

c）　The　Premack　Principle　suggests　that　a　more　probable　activity　
can　be　used　to　reinforce　a　less　probable　one。　According　to　the　
Premack　Principle；　a　reinforcer　may　be　any　event　or　activity　
that　is　valued　by　the　organism。　

E。　Schedules　of　Reinforcement　
1。　Reinforcers　can　be　delivered　according　to　either　ratio　or　interval　
schedules。　Each　of　these　schedules　can　be　used　with　a　fixed　or　variable　
pattern　of　reinforcement。　

2。　The　Partial　Reinforcement　Effect　states　that　responses　acquired　under　
schedules　of　partial　reinforcement　are　more　resistant　to　extinction　than　
those　acquired　with　continuous　reinforcement　
3。　In　a　Fixed…Ratio　Schedule　（FR）；　reinforcement　es　after　the　organism　
has　emitted　a　fixed　number　of　responses。　FR　schedules　produce　high　
response　rates　because　there　is　a　direct　correlation　between　
responding　and　reinforcement。　
4。　In　a　Variable…Ratio　Schedule　（VR）；　the　average　number　of　responses　
between　reinforcements　remains　constant；　but　the　actual　number　of　
responses　between　reinforcements　varies　around　this　average。　VR　
schedules　produce　the　highest　response　rates　and　the　greatest　
resistance　to　extinction。　
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5。　In　a　Fixed…Interval　Schedule　（FI）；　reinforcement　is　delivered　for　the　first　
response　made　after　a　fixed　period　of　time　has　elapsed。　Response　rates　
under　a　FI　schedule　show　a　scalloped　pattern。　Immediately　after　
reinforcement；　response　rates　are　low；　but；　as　the　time　interval　nears　
expiration；　response　rates　increase。　
6。　In　a　Variable…Interval　Schedule　（VI）；　the　average　time　interval　between　
reinforcements　is　predetermined。　This　schedule　generates　a　moderate　
but　stable　response　rate。　
F。　Shaping　
1。　Shaping　is　a　method　of　behavior　modification　in　which　successive　
approximations　to　the　desired　behavior　are　reinforced。　For　shaping　to　
be　effective；　what　constitutes　progress　toward　the　target　behavior　must　
be　defined；　and　differential　reinforcement　schedules　must　be　used　to　
refine　behavior。　
2。　Chaining　is　a　technique　used　to　teach　sequences　of　actions。　In　
chaining；　the　last　response　of　the　sequence　is　reinforced　first。　
3。　Each　link　in　the　behavior　chain　serves　as　a　discriminative　stimulus　for　
th