心理学与生活-第37章

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presentation　decreases　the　probability　that　a　behavior　will　be　repeated。　Examples　of　
positive　punishment　include　such　stimulus　events　as　giving　the　organism　electric　shock　if　
it　engages　in　a　behavior　that　the　experimenter　considers　undesirable。　
4。　Negative　Reinforcement；　cell　（4）；　consists　of　removing　a　stimulus　event　that　the　organism　
perceives　as　unpleasant。　This　condition　permits　the　organism　to　escape　from　an　
unfavorable　event。　
Operant　Conditioning　Matrix　
Pleasant　Stimulus　Unpleasant　Stimulus　
Presented　（1）　Positive　Reinforcement–serves　to　
increase　response　frequency　
（3）　Positive　Punishment–serves　to　
decrease　response　frequency　
Removed　（2）　Negative　Punishment–serves　to　
decrease　response　frequency　
（4）　Negative　Reinforcement–serves　to　
increase　response　frequency　

Skinner　used　the　Law　of　Effect　to　derive　the　cornerstone　of　Behaviorism；　which　states　that　any　
behavior　can　result　in　reinforcement　or　punishment。　Behavior　resulting　in　reinforcement　is　more　
likely　to　recur；　behavior　resulting　in　punishment　is　less　likely　to　recur。　Skinner’s　methods　are　a　
specialized　case　of　operant　conditioning　and　his　method　is　simpler　than　that　used　by　Thorndike。　
Additionally；　Skinner　made　a　distinction　between　classical　conditioning　and　operant　conditioning　
that　clarifies　the　difference　between　the　two　for　many　students。　Skinner　said　that　classical　
conditioning　dealt　with　behavior　which　was　elicited　by　an　external　stimulus；　and　that　the　elicited　
behavior　was　an　involuntary　response　（e。g。；　salivation）。　He　defined　operant　conditioning　as　
behavior　emitted　from　within　the　participant；　in　response　to　external　stimulus；　but　with　the　criteria　
that　the　response　was　voluntary　（cat　pressing　lever　to　get　food）。　Skinner　also　developed　a　process　
known　as　shaping；　which　he　defined　as　the　establishment　of　a　new　response　by　rewarding　
successive　approximations　to　the　desired　response。　He　went　on　to　define　chaining；　which　is　part　of　
the　process　of　shaping；　as　being　the　reinforcement　of　each　response　by　giving　the　animal　an　
opportunity　to　make　the　next　response。　Skinner　also　defined　what　is　known　as　the　ABC’s　of　
Behavior；　as　follows：　

ABC’s　of　Behavior　

A　=　Antecedent　（the　stimulus　event）
B　=　Behavior　（the　behavioral　response　to　the　stimulus）
C　=　Consequence　（the　reinforcement　that　follows　the　behavior）


The　consequence　of　a　given　behavior　served　as　the　determinant　of　the　likelihood　of　that　behavior　

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being　repeated　in　the　future。　Given　this　model；　operant　conditioning　is　as　easy　as　your　A…B…C’s！　

Behavioral　Control　of　a　Behavior　Problem　

Timmy　B。　was　a　five…year…old　child　of　average　intelligence　who　was　a　“behavior　problem。”　He　
screamed；　fought；　disobeyed；　and　bossed　others　both　at　home　and　school；　despite　his　young　age。　
His　parents　were　concerned　over　his　obviously　undesirable　behavior；　which　they　expected　to　get　
even　worse　as　he　grew　older。　“He　continually　told　other　children　what　to　do　and　how　to　play；　and　
enforced　his　demands　with　punches；　kicks；　and　slaps；”　they　reported。　

A　behavioral　psychologist’s　observations　of　Timmy’s　mother’s　interaction　with　her　son　revealed　
three　things：　

1。　She　reinforced　his　undesirable　behavior　with　attention　
2。　She　did　not　enforce　consequences　in　a　consistent　fashion　
3。　She　did　not　make　the　relationship　between　behavior　and　consequence　clear；　because　she　
often　used　lengthy　explanations　before　applying　discipline　
The　behavioral　psychologists　who　consulted　with　Timmy’s　mother　taught　her　to　arrange　three　
types　of　contingencies　for　Timmy’s　behaviors：　punishment；　extinction；　and　positive　reinforcement。　

Punishment：　As　soon　as　Timmy　acted　aggressively　or　disobediently；　Mrs。　B。　took　him　to　a　
time…out　room　that　contained　no　items　of　interest　to　the　child。　He　was　told　only　that　he　
could　not　stay　with　the　others　if　he　fought　or　disobeyed。　He　was　put　in　the　time…out　room；　
without　conversation　or　further　explanation；　for　a　two…minute　period　（or　two　minutes　from　
the　end　of　his　last　cry　or　tantrum）。　This　punishment　involved　the　negative　stimulus　of　loss　
of　opportunity　for　stimulation。　It　could　be　removed　by　behaving　in　socially　acceptable　
ways。　When　the　time　was　up；　Timmy　was　taken　back　to　his　regular　activities　without　
ment　on　the　previous　episode。　

Extinction：　Less　serious　forms　of　undesirable　behavior　were　ignored　so　that　they　would　
have　no　reinforcing　consequences。　

Positive　Reinforcement：　Desirable　behaviors　such　as　cooperative　play　and　following　
instructions　were　directly　praised；　and　at　the　end　of　some　periods　of　desirable　play　Timmy　
got　a　special　treat。　

To　demonstrate　the　effectiveness　of　mother　as　behavior　therapist；　the　psychologists　first　observed　
Timmy’s　behavior　for　a　baseline　period；　and　then　instructed　Mrs。　B。　to　carry　out　her　behavioral　
contingency　management　program。　This　sequence　was　then　repeated。　Timmy’s　aggressive　and　
disobedient　behaviors　were　dramatically　changed　by　manipulating　their　consequences。　His　parents　
and　neighbors　mented　that　Timmy　behaved　like　a　“different　child。”　During　the　first　baseline　
period　Timmy　followed　only　about　30　percent　of　instructions　given　to　him；　but　a　week　later　he　was　
following　three…fourths　of　them。　On　some　days；　Timmy　never　misbehaved；　even　not　striking　back　
when　another　child　hit　him。　As　Timmy’s　problem　behavior　declined；　his　mother　mented　more　
favorably　about　him；　she　felt　she　was　a　more　effective　mother　and　showed　more　affection　for　her　
son。　

WALDEN　TWO　

In　Walden　Two；　B。　F。　Skinner　presented　a　hypothetical　munity　based　on　behavioral　principles。　
Given　what　we　know　today　about　behaviorism；　and　cognitive　theory；　is　such　a　munity　feasible？　
You　might　discuss　with　students　some　of　the　ideas　presented　in　Walden　Two　and　ask　for　their　
opinions　about　these　ideas。　Are　they　outdated？　Are　they　workable？　Have　recent　gains　in　knowledge　
in　cognitive　theory　and　information　processing　made　some　of　Skinner’s　ideas　obsolete？　Do　students　

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even　believe　that　such　a　munity　is　possible？　If　so；　how　might　they　organize　it　differently　than　
Skinner’s　munity？　（From　Koss）　

CRIME　AND　PUNISHMENT　

Punishment　and　the　Criminal　Justice　System。　Skinner　and　his　followers　identified　several　
conditions　that　must　be　met　for　punishment　to　be　effective。　Your　text　discusses　three　of　them：　it　must　
be　immediate；　it　must　be　consistent；　and　it　must　be　sufficiently　aversive　but　not　overly　aversive。　
Some　other　conditions　that　make　punishment　more　effective　are　that：　it　should　be　directly　related　to　
the　problem　behavior　so　that　it　is　clearly　seen　as　a　consequence　of　the　behavior；　it　should　be　part　of　
a　larger　process　in　which　the　reason　for　the　punishment　is　clearly　explained　and　the　desirable　
behavior　is　clearly　explained；　the　person　should　be　rewarded　for　engaging　in　more　desirable　
behaviors。　In　examining　today’s　criminal　justice　system　in　the　United　States；　how　many　of　these　
conditions　does　it　consistently　meet？　In　most　cases；　students　agree　that　it　does　not　meet　many　of　
them；　if　any　of　them。　Perhaps　this　is　contributes　to　the　high　recidivism　rate　we　have　in　our　justice　
system。　What　ideas　do　students　have　to　utilize　skinner’s　conditions　and　perhaps　improve　the　
effectiveness　of　the　current　system？　

MORE　ON　BEHAVIOR　MODIFICATION　

Have　students　identify　a　behavior　they　would　like　to　change。　Discuss　behavior　modification　
principles　with　them　and　have　them　fill　out　Student　Activity　5。4　（behavior　modification）　as　part　of　
developing　a　plan　to　modify　the　behavior　they　identified。　It　is　important　to　review　the　qualities　of　a　
good　goal　（i。e。　it　is　specific；　it　is　behavioral；　it　is　quantifiable；　it　is　reasonably　attainable）。　And　since　
choosing　an　effective　reward　is　crucial　to　making　a　plan　such　as　this　work；　review　the　qualities　of　a　
good　reward　（i。e。　it　should　be　something　they　really　want；　but　can　live　without；　in　case　they　fail　to　
achieve　their　sub　goals；　it　should　be　something　they　have　plete　control　over）。　This　can　be　a　
useful　demonstration　of　behavior　modification　as　well　as　an　activity　that　can　really　improve　the　
quality　of　some　students’　lives。　

BIOGRAPHICAL　PROFILES　

Albert　Bandura　（b。　1925）　

When　Daddy　spanks　Johnny　for　misbehaving；　he　may　inadvertently　be　providing　Johnny　with　a　
model　of　aggressive　behavior　that　Johnny　will　incorporate　into　his　own　pattern　of　behavior。　This　
discovery　is　only　one　of　the　important　observations　that　Albert　Bandura　has　brought　to　the　
attention　of　psychologists　and　sociologists　in　recent　years。　

Graduating　from　the　University　of　British　Columbia　in　1949　at　the　age　of　24；　Bandura　went　on　to　
earn　his　doctorate　in　clinical　psychology　at　the　State　University　of　Iowa　in　1952。　There；　under　the　
guidance　of　Kenneth　Spence；　who　also　served　as　mentor　to　Neal　Miller　and　John　Dollard；　Bandura　
realized　the　need　for　more　careful　examination　of　the　behavior　modification　process　as　it　unfolds　
during　psychotherapy。　He　drew　from　Hullian　learning　theory；　Skinnerian　behaviorism；　and　the　
current　theories　of　modeling　and　imitation　to　formulate　his　own　groundbreaking　social　learning　
theory—behavior　modification　broadened　to　a　socially　oriented　context。　

Bandura　began　his　studies　of　aggression　with　children　as　participants。　In　the　course　of　his　
experiments；　he　discovered　that　the　kinds　of　behavior　exhibited　by　parents　and　the　attitudes　they　
expressed　toward　aggression　were　vital　in　determining　their　children’s　behavior。　The　implications　
of　his　results　were　enormous；　evoking　concern　among　psychologists　and　the　public　over　the　impact　
that　excessive　violence　on　television　and　other　media　was　having　on　impressionable　young　minds。　

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Bandura　synthesized　these　and　other　research　results　in　Principles　of　Behavior　Modification；　
published　in　1969。　An　important　and　precisely　written　book；　it　challenged　Skinner’s　contention　
that　mental　processes　should　not　be　considered　in　a　science　of　behavior。　Bandura’s　work　won　him　
a　Guggenheim　Fellowship　and　election　as　president　of　the　American　Psychological　Association　in　

1974。　A　significant　product　of　his　fellowship　was　his　classic　text；　Aggression：　A　Social　Learning　
Analysis。　

One　of　those　individuals　who　is　truly　happy　only　when　engaged　in　a　number　of　projects　
simultaneously；　Bandura　is　currently　conducting　research　at　several　different　levels。　On　a　broad　
theoretical　level；　he　is　studying　the　development　of　self…efficacy　and　the　relationship　between　
people’s　moral　codes　and　principles　and　conduct。　On　a　more　practical　level；　he　is　developing　the　
use　of　modeling　as　an　essential　ingredient　of　psychotherapy。　Bandura　published　a　pendium　of　

his　research　and　thinking；　Social　Foundations　of　Thought　and　Action：　A　Social　Cognitive　Theory；　in　
1986。　

Konrad　Lorenz　（b。　1903）　

Lorenz　obtained　his　M。D。　in　1928　and　Ph。D。　in　1933　from　the　Anatomical　Institute　of　the　University　
of　Vienna。　Lorenz　is　widely　regarded　as　the　father　of　ethology；　the　study　of　animal　behavior　as　
observed　in　the　natural　habitat。　His　major　contributions　include　research　on　imprinting　and　
aggressive　b