心理学与生活-第38章

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observed　in　the　natural　habitat。　His　major　contributions　include　research　on　imprinting　and　
aggressive　behavior；　for　which　he　received　the　Nobel　Prize。　Lorenz　espoused　a　hydraulic　model　to　
account　for　aggression；　arguing　that　all　stored　energy；　including　aggressive　energy；　must　eventually　

be　discharged。　His　most　influential　work　is　On　Aggression　（1966）。　

Ivan　Petrovich　Pavlov　（1849—1936）　

It　is　ironic　that　Ivan　Pavlov；　whose　pioneering　work　laid　the　foundations　for　the　behaviorist　school　
of　thought　in　psychology；　believed　that　psychology　was　“pletely　hopeless”　as　an　independent　
science。　Pavlov　rather　saw　his　work　on　conditioning　as　a　problem　of　physiology；　a　way　in　which　to　
discover　the　physical　properties　of　the　brain。　

Born　in　1849；　the　son　of　a　village　priest；　Pavlov　received　his　early　education　in　a　seminary　school；　
fully　intending　to　follow　his　father　into　the　priesthood。　Nevertheless；　after　reading　several　books　on　
physiology；　he　changed　his　mind　and　decided　on　a　career　in　the　natural　sciences。　Though　he　
encountered　resistance　at　home；　he　entered　the　University　of　St。　Petersburg　and　obtained　his　basic　
degree　in　physiology　in　1875。　

Pavlov’s　research　for　the　next　20　years　was　concerned　primarily　with　the　study　of　digestive　
processes；　and　it　was　for　his　work　in　this　area　that　he　won　the　Nobel　Prize　in　1904。　It　was　in　the　
course　of　directing　a　number　of　experiments　on　the　digestive　glands　that　he　first　became　aware　of　
the　significance　of　the　conditioned　response。　He　had　been　working　with　dogs　as　experimental　
animals　in　an　effort　to　establish　the　precise　function　of　saliva　in　the　digestive　process；　when　he　
noticed　that　many　of　the　dogs　secreted　saliva　even　before　meat　was　administered　to　them。　He　
quickly　determined　that　this　“psychic　response”　occurred　whenever　the　dogs　either　had　a　
preliminary　glimpse　of　the　food　or　heard　the　approaching　footsteps　of　the　lab　assistant　who　fed　
them。　

This　was　so　unexpected　a　phenomenon　that　he　decided　to　pursue　the　process　as　a　physiological　
problem；　receiving　generous　funding　for　the　enterprise　when　the　Soviet　government　came　to　power。　
The　new　regime　was　anxious　to　push　forward　biological　and　behavioral　research；　and　there　was　in　
Pavlov；　Nobel　laureate　and　brilliant　experimentalist；　a　man　who　could　bring　the　Soviet　Union　into　
the　vanguard　of　scientific　research。　A　large　number　of　colleagues　and　assistants　joined　Pavlov　in　
his　work；　thus　establishing　the　longest…lived　research　project　in　the　history　of　psychology。　The　
Pavlovian　paradigm　is　still　used　as　the　major　approach　to　the　study　of　psychology　in　the　Soviet　
Union。　

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Burrhus　Frederic　Skinner　（1904—1990）　

B。　F。　Skinner　was　born　in　Susquehanna；　Pennsylvania；　the　son　of　a　lawyer。　He　attended　Hamilton　
College　where　he　majored　in　English；　hoping　to　bee　a　writer。　During　his　last　year　at　Hamilton；　
Skinner　sent　some　short　stories　he　had　written　to　the　poet　Robert　Frost；　hoping　for　some　helpful　
criticism。　Much　to　Skinner’s　surprise；　Frost　replied　enthusiastically；　encouraging　the　young　author　
to　pursue　a　writing　career。　Skinner　took　the　advice　seriously　and　set　aside　a　block　of　time　following　
graduation　in　which　to　apply　himself　to　his　chosen　discipline。　In　looking　back　on　that　year；　Skinner　
wryly　mented　that　while　he　did　indeed　write　well；　he　also　discovered　that　he　had　nothing　
important　to　say。　
To　remedy　that　situation；　he　returned　to　academia　as　a　graduate　student　in　psychology。　He　had　
done　much　reading　during　his　year　away　from　school；　and　in　the　course　of　it；　had　discovered　the　
works　of　John　B。　Watson。　The　story　of　Watson’s　pioneering　efforts　excited　Skinner’s　interest　and　
thus　determined　his　decision　to　study　psychology。　Skinner　was　accepted　at　Harvard　and　earned　
his　Ph。D。　in　experimental　psychology　in　1931。　He　continued　with　postdoctoral　work　until　1936；　
when　he　accepted　a　teaching　position　at　the　University　of　Minnesota。　Throughout　this　period；　
Skinner　had　been　formulating　and　testing　his　theories　on　conditioning。　So　impressive　were　the　
results　he　achieved　in　controlling　the　behavior　of　laboratory　animals；　the　U。S。　government　
employed　him　in　a　top…secret　project　during　World　War　II。　Skinner　was　given　funding　to　condition　
pigeons　to　guide　missiles　directly　down　the　smokestacks　of　warships。　

After　the　war；　Skinner　did　not　hesitate　to　apply　the　techniques　he　had　developed　to　human　
participants。　On　moving　to　Indiana　University　as　chairman　of　its　new　psychology　department；　he　
constructed　his　famous　“air　crib”；　a　sound…proofed；　germ…free　“box”　enclosed　in　clear　plastic　and　
intended　as　an　environment　in　which　infants　could　spend　much　of　their　time。　In　1948；　Skinner　
returned　to　Harvard　University　as　a　member　of　the　faculty。　There　he　developed　the　Skinner　Box；　a　
chamber　in　which　animal　behavior　（particularly　that　of　rats　and　pigeons）　could　be　precisely　
recorded　and　prepared　for　statistical　analysis。　The　apparatus　had　an　immediate　impact　on　
experimental　laboratories　in　universities　across　the　country。　

Skinner　became　convinced　that　the　learning　techniques　he　had　hit　on　with　his　methodology　could　
be　translated　to　the　environment　of　the　classroom；　and　so　spent　most　of　the　1950s　perfecting　his　
programmed　teaching　modules　for　schoolchildren。　With　these；　children　could　acquire　information　
and　skills　while　being　led　through　a　series　of　questions；　each　of　their　correct　responses　eliciting　a　
reinforcing　confirmation。　

Throughout　his　career；　Skinner　published　prolifically；　and　the　American　Psychological　Association　
honored　him　for　his　immense　contribution　with　their　Distinguished　Scientific　Contribution　Award　
in　1958。　Though　he　retired　as　the　Edgar　Pierce　Professor　of　Psychology　at　Harvard；　Skinner　did　not　

bee　idle。　In　the　decade　before　his　death；　he　published　his　autobiography；　Particulars　of　My　Life；　a　
book　on　aging；　in　1983；　and　continued　to　be　active；　writing；　and　espousing　the　controversial　brand　
of　behaviorism　for　which　he　became　famous。　

Edward　Lee　Thorndike　（1874—1949）　

Edward　Thorndike　was　born　in　Williamsburg；　Massachusetts；　the　son　of　a　lawyer。　He　graduated　

from　Wesleyan　University　in　Connecticut　in　1875；　but　showed　no　interest　in　psychology　until　he　
read　William　James’　Principles　of　Psychology；　after　which　he　decided　to　study　under　James　at　
Harvard。　Thorndike’s　initial　experiments　were　conducted　in　the　basement　of　James’　home。　When　
James　lost　interest　in　experimental　work；　Thorndike　left　Harvard　and　obtained　his　Ph。D。　at　
Columbia　University。　There　he　conducted　his　famous　experiments　on　cats　in　puzzle　boxes。　

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Thorndike　was　among　psychology’s　most　prolific　and　versatile　scientists；　publishing　more　than　
500　monographs；　books；　and　articles　during　his　career。　He　applied　his　considerable　intellect　to　a　
wide　range　of　topics；　including　individual　differences；　attitudes；　vocabulary；　intelligence；　learning；　

and　memory。　His　many　writings　include　the　influential　book；　Animal　Intelligence。　

TIMELINE　

Yea　Event　
r　
1898　Edward　L。　Thorndike　proposed　that　learning　was　controlled　by　its　consequences；　
an　idea　that　he　termed　the　”Law　of　Effect。”　
1904　Ivan　P。　Pavlov；　a　Russian　physiologist；　discovered　classical　conditioning。　
1905　Albert　Einstein　developed　his　theory　of　relativity。　
1909　Henry　Ford　began　the　mass　production　of　the　Model　T；　and　auto　travel　became　a　
democratic　experience。　
1913　John　B。　Watson　published　Psychology　as　the　Behaviorist　Views　It；　establishing　his　
brand　of　behaviorism　as　an　approach　to　studying　learning　and　behavior。　
19141918　
World　War　I　was　fought。　
1927　Wolfgang　K。hler　coined　the　term　“insight”　to　describe　a　kind　of　learning　in　which　
the　organism　suddenly　arrived　at　a　solution　to　a　problem。　
1932　Edward　C。　Tolman　published　Purposive　Behavior　in　Animals　and　Men；　a　book　
outlining　one　of　the　earlier　cognitive　theories　of　learning。　
1938　B。　F。　Skinner　published　The　Behavior　of　Organisms；　a　book　describing　the　basic　
principles　of　operant　conditioning。　
1943　Penicillin　was　discovered。　
1953　B。　F　。　Skinner　published　Science　and　Human　Behavior；　a　book　that　applied　the　basic　
principles　of　operant　conditioning　to　understanding　human　learning　and　
behavior。　
1959　David　Premack　discovered　that　preferred　activities　can　be　used　to　reinforce　less　
preferred　activities；　an　idea　soon　to　bee　known　as　the　Premack　Principle。　
1961　Richard　J。　Herrnstein　proposed　the　matching　law；　the　notion　that　behavior　in　a　
choice　situation　matches　the　frequency　of　reinforcement　associated　with　each　of　
the　choice　alternatives。　
1962　Albert　Bandura　proposed　his　model　of　social　learning　theory；　a　cognitive　account　
of　how　imitation　and　modeling　influence　learning。　
1966　John　Garcia　and　Robert　A。　Koelling　discovered　that　animals　learn　to　associate　
some　stimuli　with　the　consequences　of　their　behavior　more　quickly　than　other　
stimuli；　reflecting　natural　biases　in　how　animals　adapt　to　their　environment。　
1969　The　first　man　landed　on　the　moon。　
1972　Robert　Rescorla　and　Allan　Wagner　proposed　that　in　classical　conditioning；　

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organisms　learn　the　correlation　between　conditioned　stimuli　and　reinforcement。　
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SUGGESTIONS　FOR　FURTHER　READINGS　

Anderson；　J。　R。　（1993）。　Problem　Solving　and　Learning。　American　Psychologist；　48（l）；　35–44。　Describes　
Anderson’s　ACT*　theory；　as　an　elaboration　of　Newell　and　Simons’　work；　and　suggests　that　it　can　
account　for　the　acquisition　of　problem…solving　skills。　

Anderson；　J。　R。　（1995）。　Learning　and　Memory：　An　Integrated　Approach。　New　York：　John　Wiley　&　Sons。　
An　excellent　text　on　learning　and　memory。　Includes　a　through　review　of　both　historical　and　
contemporary　research。　Emphasizes　two　themes；　the　neural　basis　of　learning　and　memory　and　
the　adaptive　nature　of　learning　and　memory；　throughout。　

Bower；　G。　H。　（1994）。　In　Appreciation　of　E。　A。　Hilgard’s　Writings　on　Learning　Theories。　Psychological　
Science；　5（4）；　181–182。　Review　of　Hilgard’s　Conditioning　and　Learning　and　Theories　of　Learning；　with　
a　view　toward　ecological　validity　in　research。　

Carey；　S。；　&　Gelman；　R。　（eds。）　（1991）。　The　Epigenisis　of　Mind：　Essays　on　Biology　and　Cognition。　
Hillsdale；　NJ：　L。　Eribaum　&　Associates。　The　Jean　Piaget　Symposium　series。　Consists　of　papers　
presented　at　the　symposium。　

Klein；　S。　B。　（1987）。　Learning：　Principles　and　Applications。　New　York：　McGraw…Hill。　A　well…written　text　
that　presents　material　on　both　animal　and　human　learning　and　memory　processes。　

Rescorla；　R。　（1966）。　Predictability　and　Number　of　Pairings　in　Pavlovian　Fear　Conditioning。　Psychonomic　
Science；　4（11）；　383–384。　Describes　Rescorla’s　classic　experiment　on　the　importance　of　contingency　
to　classical　conditioning。　

Smith；　R。　M。；　et　al。　（1990）。　Learning　to　Learn　across　the　Life　Span。　San　Francisco：　Jossey…Bass。　
pilation　of　papers　from　conferences　held　at　Northern　Illinois　University。　

Tighe；　T。　J。　（1982）。　Modern　Learning　Theory：　Foundations　and　Fundamental　Issues。　Includes　many　
examples　of　shaping；　including　a　baby’s　first　words；　a　child’s　first　at