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examples of shaping; including a baby’s first words; a child’s first attempts to print letters; and 
the attempts of a person to remain upright while learning to skate。 

Wilkie; D。 M。 (1995)。 Time–Place Learning。 Current Directions in Psychological Science; 4(3); 85–89。 An 
overview of time–place learning in animals and its relevance to their natural foraging habits; as 
well as offering insights into a new framework for studying animals’ memory。 

DISCOVERING PSYCHOLOGY 

PROGRAM 8: LEARNING AND CONDITIONING 

Overview 

Learning is the process that enables humans and other animals to profit from experience; 
anticipate events; and adapt to changing conditions。 Explains the basic learning principles 
and the methods psychologists use to study and modify behavior。 Also demonstrates how 
cognitive processes such as insight and observation influence learning。 

Key Issues 

Pavlov’s discovery of classical conditioning; how classical conditioning can suppress the 
immune system of rats; an instrumental and classical conditioning experiment by John Watson; 

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CHAPTER 7: LEARNING AND BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 

operant behavior and conditioning by B。 F。 Skinner; and conditioned therapy for agoraphobia。 

Archival Demonstrations 

Nobel Prize winner Ivan Pavlov discovers the concept of classical conditioning in an 

experiment originally intended to study digestion and the action of the salivary glands。 

Dr。 Robert Ader and colleague Nicholas Cohen condition rats to suppress their immune 

systems in an experiment involving an artificial sweetener。 

In the controversial experiment on classical and instrumental conditioning; John Watson 

conditions a “little Albert” to fear a rat that he had once liked。 

Psychologist B。 F。 Skinner examines the effects of positive and negative reinforcement on the 

behavior of people and animals。 

New Interview 

Howard Rachlin looks at what developments have occurred in the field of operant condition 

since the time of B。 F。 Skinner 

FILMS AND VIDEOS 

Animal Behavior: The Mechanism of Imprinting (1977)。 IU (CORT); 14 minutes 

From the first hours of life; ducklings recognize their mother and follow her everywhere。 Do they 
know her instinctively? Are they born to accept only adult ducks as parents? Scientists once 
thought so until certain contrary observations led them to the concept of imprinting; a link between 
instinct and learning。 A good depiction of Lorenz’ theory。 

Biofeedback: Medical Applications of Psycho…physiologic Self…Regulation (1987)。 Insight Media; 
54 minutes 

This program reviews treatment procedures from both the patient’s and the therapist’s 
perspectives。 It describes the rationale for the self…regulation process; presenting cases involving 
self…regulation training for hypertension; migraine; chronic back pain; anxiety; and post…traumatic 
rehabilitation。 

Child Management (1986)。 Insight Media; 20 minutes 

Offers ideas on managing children’s behavior using learning theory principles of reinforcement。 
Clarifies the difference between punishment and discipline and explains when each is appropriate。 
Presentation is done with humor and sensitivity。 A good reinforcer for lectures on operant 
conditioning。 

A Conversation with B。 F。 Skinner (1972)。 (CRM) MCGH; 23 minutes 

An interview conducted by Elizabeth Hall of Psychology Today。 Skinner traces the origin and basic 
principles of behaviorism; including his views on control; punishment; and freedom。 He focuses on 
the value of a culture designed by behaviorists; but also answers the typical criticisms; “Who will 
keep the controllers honest?” and “What will happen to creativity in a culture controlled by 
operant conditioning?” Skinner also discusses some of the problems of implementing behavior 
modification systems。 Skinner’s fascination (his for his science and ours for him) is timeless。 

Learning (1990)。 Insight Media; 30 minutes 

125 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

Explains the fundamental processes of classical and operant conditioning and includes 
information on taste aversion。 Includes an interview with B。 F。 Skinner and a segment on the use of 
behavior modification with hyperactive children。 

Observational Learning (1987)。 HARR; 23 minutes 

Explores modeling and social learning theory and includes a demonstration of the Bandura and 
Walters “Bobo Doll” experiment。 Effects of TV violence on aggression in children are discussed。 An 
excellent film。 

Pavlov’s Experiment: The Conditioned Reflex (1976)。 CORT; 9 minutes 

This film explains the difference between conditioned and unconditioned reflexes; and outlines 
Pavlov’s contribution to the study of the physiology of higher nerve activity in the brain。 Pavlov’s 
famous experiment is realistically re…created to illustrate classical conditioning。 The preciseness 
and repetition of a scientific experiment with a living organism are graphically apparent。 A quick 
and excellent introduction to classical conditioning。 

The Power of Positive Reinforcement (1978)。 ITJ (CRM); 28 minutes 

Illustrates how behavior…modification programs that emphasize positive reinforcement have 
increased organizations’ productivity; savings; and employee satisfaction。 Shows implementation 
of such programs in a division of 3M pany; Valley Fair Amusement Park; and the Minnesota 
Vikings football team。 This film is useful because it shows real…world applications of operant 
conditioning principles。 

A Question of Learning (1982)。 FI; 60 minutes 

Mingles dramatization of renowned experiments in behavioral studies with location footage to 
examine how naturalists and scientists have uncovered the secrets of animal behavior。 Recreates 
Pavlov’s discovery of the conditioned reflex; Thorndike’s experiments with chicks; and Skinner’s 
famed work at Harvard during the 1930s。 

Skinner and Behavior Change: Research; Practice and Promise (1979)。 REPR; 45 minutes 

The development of modern behaviorism is examined。 Skinner is interviewed on theory; uses; and 
ethical issues。 Examples of the uses of behavior modification are shown。 

A World of Difference: B。 F。 Skinner and the Good Life; Parts 1 and 2 (1979)。 TLF; 53 minutes 

Traces the development of behaviorism and B。 F。 Skinner’s application of the theory in raising his 
infant daughter in an environmentally controlled box; as well as his early experiments with 
pigeons。 Includes a visit by Skinner and his family to Twin Oaks; the rural Virginia mune that 

attempts to live according to the principles in Walden Two。 mune members describe their 
successes; failures; and modifications of Skinner’s model; emphasizing their difficulties with sex 
and economic roles。 Produced for the NOVA series。 

Keynote Address: B。 F。 Skinner’s Lifetime Scientific Contribution Remarks (1990)。 American 
Psychological Association; 19 minutes 

Skinner reviews the path psychology has taken from early introspective methods to modern day 
methods including natural selection and operant conditioning。 

126 


CHAPTER 8 
Memory 

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 

On pletion of this chapter; students should be able to: 

1。 Identify and describe the different types of memory; such as implicit; explicit; declarative; 
and procedural 
2。 Understand the sensory memory systems 
3。 Describe the nature and functions of short…term and working memory 
4。 Describe the nature and functions of long…term memory 
5。 Demonstrate knowledge of interference theory 
6。 Explain the significance of encoding specificity to the retrieval process 
7。 Describe the nature and implications of the serial position curve 
8。 Demonstrate an understanding of levels of processing theory 
9。 Define the nature and function of metamemory 
10。 Identify the importance of reconstructive processes to memory 
CHAPTER OUTLINE 

I。 What is Memory? 
A。 The goal of the chapter is to explain how you usually remember so much; and why you 
forget some of what you have known 
1。 Memory; a type of information processing; is the capacity to store; 
encode; and retrieve information 
B。 Ebbinghaus Quantifies Memory 
1。 Ebbinghaus made a cogent argument for empirical investigation of 
memory and developed a brilliant methodology to study it 
a) Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables and rote learning to study 
what he thought was pure memory 

b) Non…sense syllables are meaningless three…letter binations 
consisting of a consonant; followed by a vowel; followed by a 
consonant。 Ebbinghaus felt that these meaningless 
binations were not contaminated by previous learning。 

c) Rote learning is memorizing by mechanical repetition; as when 
memorizing a list of words 

126 


CHAPTER 8: MEMORY 

d) In his methodology; Ebbinghaus learned lists of nonsense 

syllable to a criterion performance level; in his case perfect 
memory。 He would then distract himself for an interval by 
studying other lists; and then relearn the original list。 

Ebbinghaus called the difference between the time to learn the 
list originally and the time to relearn the list as savings。 

e) Ebbinghaus; and many psychologists that followed him; 
assumed that there was only one type of memory。 This 
assumption turned out to be incorrect。 

C。 Types of Memory 
1。 Implicit and Explicit Memory 
a) Implicit memory is that which bees available without 
conscious effort 

b) Explicit memory is that in which the individual makes a 
conscious effort to recover information 

2。 Declarative and Procedural Memory 
a) Declarative memory involves the recollection of facts and events 

b) Procedural memory involves the recollection of how to do 
things 

c) Knowledge pilation is the ability to carry out sequences of 
activity without conscious intervention。 Knowledge 
pilation makes it difficult to share procedural knowledge。 

D。 An Overview of Memory Processes 
1。 All memory requires the operation of three mental processes: 
a) Encoding; the initial processing of information that leads to 
representation in memory 
b) Storage; the retention over time of encoded information 
c) Retrieval; the recovery of the stored information at a later time 

2。 Mental traces are the mental representations of individual memories 
II。Sensory Memory 
A。 Sensory Memory refers to the initial memory processes involved in the momentary 
preservation of fleeting impressions of sensory stimuli。 Each of your sensory modalities has 
a sensory memory or sensory register that extends the availability of information acquired 
from the environment 
B。 Iconic Memory 
1。 Iconic memory is sensory memory in the visual domain 
2。 A visual memory; or icon; lasts about half a second 
127 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

3。 Iconic memory is not the same as eidetic imagery; or photographic memory; 
which holds images in memory much longer than iconic memory。 
Eidetic imagery is rarely found in adults 
C。 Echoic Memory 
1。 Echoic memory is sensory memory for sounds 
2。 Echoic memories are easily displaced by new information that is similar 
to the sensory experience that gave rise to the memory 
3。 The suffix effect; where a similar sound impedes memory by r

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