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¡£¡¡Environmental¡¡cues¡¡for¡¡memory¡¡also¡¡decrease¡¡as¡¡people¡¡grow¡¡older¡£¡¡Houses¡¡and¡¡other¡¡structures¡¡they¡¡
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been¡¡replaced¡¡by¡¡expressways£»¡¡and¡¡fields¡¡and¡¡forests¡¡have¡¡been¡¡replaced¡¡by¡¡buildings¡£¡¡
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being¡¡widowed£»¡¡living¡¡far¡¡from¡¡one¡¯s¡¡children£»¡¡watching¡¡one¡¯s¡¡friends¡¡and¡¡acquaintances¡¡bee¡¡ill¡¡and¡¡
die£»¡¡and¡¡their¡¡own¡¡deteriorating¡¡physical¡¡health¡¡are¡¡all¡¡more¡¡than¡¡adequate¡¡reasons¡¡for¡¡depression¡£¡¡
Depression¡¡brings¡¡limited¡¡attention¡£¡¡If¡¡the¡¡attention¡¡span¡¡of¡¡an¡¡elderly¡¡individual¡¡is¡¡impaired¡¡as¡¡a¡¡
conitant¡¡of¡¡depression£»¡¡memory¡¡impairment¡¡may¡¡follow¡£¡¡
BIOGRAPHICAL¡¡PROFILES¡¡

Hermann¡¡Ebbinghaus¡¡£¨1850¡ª1909£©¡¡

Born¡¡in¡¡Barmen£»¡¡Germany£»¡¡Ebbinghaus¡¡was¡¡instrumental¡¡in¡¡the¡¡development¡¡of¡¡the¡¡new¡¡
science¡¡of¡¡experimental¡¡psychology¡¡at¡¡the¡¡turn¡¡of¡¡the¡¡century¡£¡¡A¡¡professor¡¡at¡¡both¡¡Breslau¡¡and¡¡
Halle£»¡¡he¡¡was¡¡the¡¡first¡¡experimentalist¡¡to¡¡conduct¡¡vigorous¡¡laboratory¡¡investigations¡¡of¡¡human¡¡
learning¡¡and¡¡memory¡£¡¡Using¡¡himself¡¡as¡¡a¡¡participant£»¡¡Ebbinghaus¡¡memorized¡¡long¡¡lists¡¡of¡¡
nonsense¡¡syllables¡¡that¡¡he¡¡believed¡¡had¡¡no¡¡prior¡¡meaning¡¡or¡¡associative¡¡value¡£¡¡His¡¡research¡¡
resulted¡¡in¡¡several¡¡discoveries£»¡¡including¡¡the¡¡finding¡¡that¡¡as¡¡the¡¡quantity¡¡of¡¡material¡¡to¡¡be¡¡
learned¡¡increases£»¡¡the¡¡amount¡¡of¡¡time¡¡needed¡¡to¡¡learn¡¡it¡¡increases¡¡disproportionately£»¡¡known¡¡as¡¡
Ebbinghaus¡¯¡¡Law£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡serial¡¡position¡¡curve¡£¡¡

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Endel¡¡Tulving¡¡£¨b¡£¡¡1927£©¡¡

Born¡¡in¡¡Estonia£»¡¡Endel¡¡Tulving¡¡was¡¡educated¡¡at¡¡the¡¡University¡¡of¡¡Heidelberg¡¡and¡¡the¡¡
University¡¡of¡¡Toronto¡¡before¡¡obtaining¡¡his¡¡Ph¡£D¡£¡¡at¡¡Harvard¡¡in¡¡1951¡£¡¡He¡¡taught¡¡at¡¡the¡¡
University¡¡of¡¡Toronto¡¡for¡¡most¡¡of¡¡his¡¡professional¡¡career¡£¡¡His¡¡major¡¡contributions¡¡include¡¡both¡¡
experimental¡¡and¡¡theoretical¡¡work¡¡on¡¡human¡¡memory¡£¡¡In¡¡particular£»¡¡Tulving¡¡has¡¡introduced¡¡
many¡¡of¡¡the¡¡concepts¡¡that¡¡are¡¡today¡¡considered¡¡indispensable¡¡to¡¡understanding¡¡human¡¡
cognition¡¡and¡¡memory£»¡¡including¡¡subjective¡¡organization£»¡¡retrieval¡¡cues£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡distinction¡¡
between¡¡episodic¡¡and¡¡semantic¡¡memory¡£¡¡

Elizabeth¡¡F¡£¡¡Loftus¡¡£¨b¡£¡¡1944£©¡¡

Born¡¡in¡¡Los¡¡Angeles£»¡¡Loftus¡¡earned¡¡her¡¡B¡£A¡£¡¡in¡¡psychology¡¡at¡¡UCLA¡¡in¡¡1966¡¡and¡¡her¡¡Ph¡£D¡£¡¡at¡¡
Stanford¡¡in¡¡1970¡£¡¡She¡¡has¡¡been¡¡a¡¡professor¡¡of¡¡psychology¡¡at¡¡the¡¡University¡¡of¡¡Washington¡¡since¡¡
1975¡£¡¡Professor¡¡Loftus¡¯¡¡area¡¡of¡¡specialty¡¡is¡¡human¡¡memory¡£¡¡Her¡¡expertise¡¡is¡¡in¡¡the¡¡area¡¡of¡¡
eyewitness¡¡testimony£»¡¡and¡¡she¡¡is¡¡often¡¡referred¡¡to¡¡as¡¡¡°the¡¡expert¡¡who¡¡puts¡¡memory¡¡on¡¡trial¡£¡±¡¡
Loftus¡¡has¡¡made¡¡a¡¡career¡¡of¡¡exploring¡¡the¡¡frailties¡¡and¡¡flaws¡¡of¡¡human¡¡memory£»¡¡particularly¡¡
with¡¡respect¡¡to¡¡the¡¡validity¡¡of¡¡memories¡¡encoded¡¡under¡¡duress£»¡¡such¡¡as¡¡when¡¡witnessing¡¡a¡¡
crime¡¡or¡¡being¡¡a¡¡victim¡¡of¡¡a¡¡crime¡£¡¡She¡¡is¡¡sought¡¡after¡¡as¡¡the¡¡expert¡¡witness¡¡who¡¡can¡¡explain¡¡to¡¡
juries¡¡the¡¡fallibility¡¡of¡¡human¡¡memory£»¡¡and¡¡help¡¡them¡¡to¡¡understand¡¡that¡¡what¡¡the¡¡eyewitness¡¡
says¡¡he¡¡or¡¡she¡¡saw¡¡may£»¡¡in¡¡reality£»¡¡be¡¡due¡¡to¡¡post¡­event¡¡information¡¡that¡¡has¡¡been¡¡encoded¡¡and¡¡
incorporated¡¡into¡¡the¡¡original¡¡memory¡£¡¡

TIMELINE¡¡

Year¡¡Event¡¡
1859¡¡Charles¡¡Darwin¡¡published¡¡On¡¡the¡¡Origin¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Species¡£¡¡
1885¡¡Ebbinghaus¡¡published¡¡the¡¡first¡¡psychological¡¡study¡¡of¡¡memory¡£¡¡
19141918¡¡
World¡¡War¡¡I¡¡was¡¡fought¡£¡¡
1932¡¡Frederic¡¡Bartlett¡¡published¡¡his¡¡findings¡¡on¡¡reconstructive¡¡memory£»¡¡demonstrating¡¡
that¡¡memory¡¡is¡¡influenced¡¡by¡¡multiple¡¡subjective¡¡factors¡¡such¡¡as¡¡emotions¡¡and¡¡the¡¡
consistency¡¡of¡¡information¡£¡¡
19391945¡¡
World¡¡War¡¡II¡¡was¡¡fought¡£¡¡
1956¡¡George¡¡Miller¡¡published¡¡¡°The¡¡Magic¡¡Number¡¡Seven¡¡Plus¡¡Or¡¡Minus¡¡Two£º¡¡Some¡¡
Limits¡¡On¡¡Our¡¡Capacity¡¡For¡¡Processing¡¡Information£»¡±¡¡outlining¡¡his¡¡work¡¡on¡¡short¡­
term¡¡memory¡£¡¡
1959¡¡Donald¡¡Broadbent¡¡published¡¡Perception¡¡and¡¡munication£»¡¡outlining¡¡a¡¡new¡¡and¡¡

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important¡¡theory¡¡of¡¡attention¡£¡¡
1963¡¡John¡¡F¡£¡¡Kennedy¡¡was¡¡assassinated¡£¡¡
1966¡¡S¡£¡¡Sternberg¡¡published¡¡High¡¡Speed¡¡Scanning¡¡in¡¡Human¡¡Memory£»¡¡providing¡¡the¡¡first¡¡
evidence¡¡that¡¡processing¡¡of¡¡searching¡¡information¡¡in¡¡short¡­term¡¡memory¡¡takes¡¡
place¡¡serially¡£¡¡
1968¡¡Richard¡¡Atkinson¡¡and¡¡Richard¡¡Shiffrin¡¡introduced¡¡the¡¡¡°three¡­system¡±¡¡model¡¡of¡¡
memory¡£¡¡
1969¡¡The¡¡first¡¡moon¡¡landing¡¡occurred¡£¡¡
1972¡¡F¡£¡¡Craik¡¡and¡¡R¡£¡¡Lockhart¡¡published¡¡their¡¡levels¡¡of¡¡processing¡¡model¡¡of¡¡memory£»¡¡
the¡¡most¡¡successful¡¡petitor¡¡to¡¡the¡¡three¡­system¡¡model¡£¡¡
1972¡¡J¡£¡¡Bransford¡¡and¡¡J¡£¡¡Franks¡¡published¡¡the¡¡results¡¡of¡¡an¡¡experiment¡¡showing¡¡that¡¡
people¡¡use¡¡schemas¡¡in¡¡recalling¡¡information¡£¡¡
1974¡¡The¡¡Vietnam¡¡War¡¡ended¡£¡¡

SUGGESTIONS¡¡FOR¡¡FURTHER¡¡READINGS¡¡

Berkerian£»¡¡D¡£¡¡A¡£¡¡£¨1993£©¡£¡¡In¡¡Search¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Typical¡¡Eyewitness¡£¡¡American¡¡Psychologist£»¡¡48£¨5£©£»¡¡574¨C576¡£¡¡
Poses¡¡the¡¡question¡¡as¡¡to¡¡whether¡¡results¡¡of¡¡research¡¡in¡¡eyewitness¡¡testimony¡¡generalize¡¡to¡¡the¡¡
actual¡¡eyewitness¡£¡¡

Bruce£»¡¡D¡£¡¡£¨1994£©¡£¡¡Lashley¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Problem¡¡of¡¡Serial¡¡Order¡£¡¡American¡¡Psychologist£»¡¡49£¨2£©£»¡¡93¨C103¡£¡¡An¡¡
overview¡¡of¡¡Lashley¡¯s¡¡classic¡¡1951¡¡paper¡¡on¡¡serial¡¡order£»¡¡with¡¡its¡¡foreshadowing¡¡of¡¡the¡¡ing¡¡
changes¡¡in¡¡linguistic¡¡and¡¡cognitive¡¡approaches¡¡to¡¡learning£»¡¡memory£»¡¡perception£»¡¡and¡¡action¡£¡¡

Egeth£»¡¡H¡£¡¡E¡£¡¡£¨1993£©¡£¡¡What¡¡Do¡¡We¡¡Not¡¡Know¡¡about¡¡Eyewitness¡¡Identification£¿¡¡American¡¡Psychologist£»¡¡
48£¨5£©£»¡¡577¨C580¡£¡¡Can¡¡the¡¡psychologists¡¡logically¡¡explain¡¡the¡¡research¡¡on¡¡eyewitness¡¡testimony¡¡to¡¡a¡¡
jury£¿¡¡

Loftus£»¡¡E¡££»¡¡&¡¡Ketcham£»¡¡K¡£¡¡£¨1991£©¡£¡¡Witness¡¡for¡¡the¡¡Defense£º¡¡The¡¡Accused£»¡¡the¡¡Eyewitness£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Expert¡¡
Who¡¡Puts¡¡Memory¡¡on¡¡Trial¡£¡¡New¡¡York£º¡¡St¡¡Martin¡¯s¡¡Press¡£¡¡A¡¡collection¡¡of¡¡true¡¡stories¡¡based¡¡on¡¡Dr¡£¡¡
Loftus¡¯¡¡experience¡¡as¡¡an¡¡expert¡¡witness¡£¡¡Real¡­life¡¡courtroom¡¡dramas¡¡are¡¡used¡¡to¡¡illustrate¡¡
principles¡¡of¡¡memory¡¡and¡¡general¡¡psychology¡£¡¡

Loftus£»¡¡E¡£¡¡£¨1993£©¡£¡¡Psychologists¡¡in¡¡the¡¡Eyewitness¡¡World¡£¡¡American¡¡Psychologist£»¡¡48£¨5£©£»¡¡550¨C552¡£¡¡
Discussion¡¡of¡¡accurate¡¡identification¡¡of¡¡perpetrators¡¡and¡¡efforts¡¡to¡¡minimize¡¡false¡¡identifications¡£¡¡

Neath£»¡¡I¡£¡¡£¨1998£©¡£¡¡Human¡¡Memory£º¡¡An¡¡Introduction¡¡to¡¡Research£»¡¡Data£»¡¡and¡¡Theory¡£¡¡Pacific¡¡Grove£º¡¡
Brooks/Cole¡¡Publishing¡¡Co¡£¡¡An¡¡introduction¡¡to¡¡the¡¡field¡¡of¡¡human¡¡memory¡£¡¡Strikes¡¡a¡¡balance¡¡
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