心理学与生活-第44章
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imagined spatial experiences
2。 In reading descriptive passages； people often form a spatial mental
model to keep track of the whereabouts of characters
3。 When people think about the world around them； they almost always
bine visual and verbal representations of information
IV。 Problem Solving and Reasoning
A。 Both require bination of current information with information stored in memory to
work toward a particular goal； a conclusion or a solution
B。 Problem solving
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1。 The formal definition of a problem space； of how a problem is defined in
real life； captures three elements：
a） An initial state—the inplete information or unsatisfactory
conditions with which you start
b） A goal state—the set of information or state of the world you
hope to achieve
c） A set of operations—the steps you may take to move from the
initial state to the goal state
2。 Well…defined problems have the initial state； the goal state； and the
operations all clearly specified
3。 An ill…defined problem exists when the initial state； the goal state；
and/or the operations may be unclear and vaguely specified
4。 Algorithms are step…by…step procedures that always provide the right
answer to a particular type of problem
5。 Heuristics are strategies or “rules of thumb” that problem solvers often
use when algorithms are not available
6。 Think…aloud protocols ask participants to verbalize their ongoing
thoughts
7。 Problem solving can be improved by planning the series of operations
that it will take to solve the problem。 This assures that the small steps
needed to solve the problem do not overwhelm processing resources。
a） Finding a way to represent a problem so that each operation is
possible； given processing resources
b） Practicing each of the ponents of the solution so that； over
time； those ponents require fewer resources
8。 Functional Fixedness is a mental block that adversely affects problem
solving by inhibiting the perception of a new function for an object
C。 Deductive Reasoning
1。 Deductive reasoning is a form of thinking in which one draws a logical
conclusion from two or more statements or premises
2。 Requires reformulation of an interchange to fit the structure of a
syllogism； thus defining the logical relationships between statements
that will lead to valid conclusions
3。 Involves the correct application of logical rules； and is impacted by
both the specific knowledge possessed about the world and the
representational sources that can be brought to bear on a reasoning
problem。
a） What is invalid in logic； however； is not necessarily untrue in
real life； and information that is accepted as true can result in
biased beliefs：
b） In the belief…bias effect； people tend to judge as valid those
conclusions for which they can construct a reasonable real…
world model and as invalid those for which they cannot
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c） Experience improves the individual’s reasoning ability； such
that when a posed problem is familiar in real life； you can use
a pragmatic reasoning schema
d） Mental models may be used when pragmatic reasoning
schemas are not available。 Mental models reproduce the
details of a situation as accurately as possible； given the
limitations of working memory。 Mental models work best
when a unique model of the world can be created
D。 Inductive Reasoning
1。 Inductive reasoning is a form of reasoning that uses available evidence
to generate likely； but not certain； conclusions
2。 Allows access to tried…and…true methods that speed current problem
solving
a） Analogical problem solving permits establishment of an analogy
between features of the current situation and those of previous
situations
b） Past experience permits generalization of a solution from an
earlier problem to a new problem
c） Caution must be employed with inductive reasoning； in that
the belief that a solution has worked previously may impair
problem solving in the current situation
d） Mental sets are preexisting states of mind； habit； or attitude
that can enhance the quality and speed of perceiving and
problem solving； under some but not all conditions
V。 Judging and Deciding
A。 Definitions
1。 Bounded rationality suggests that decisions and judgment might not be
as good； as rational； as they always could be； but that they result from
applying limited “rational” resources to situations that require
immediate action
2。 Judgment is the process by which you form opinions； reach
conclusions； and make critical evaluations of events and people。
Judgments are often made spontaneously； without prompting
3。 Decision making is the process of choosing between alternatives；
selecting and rejecting available options
4。 Judgment and decision making are interrelated processes
B。 Heuristics and Judgment
1。 Heuristics are informal rules of thumb that provide shortcuts；
reducing the plexity of making judgments； they generally increase
the efficiency of thought processes
a） The availability heuristic suggests that people often make
decisions based on information that is readily available in
memory。 The availability heuristic may lead to faulty
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decisions when：
（i） Memory processes give rise to a biased sample or
information
（ii） Information stored in memory is inaccurate
b） The representativeness heuristic is captures the idea that people
use past information to make judgments about similar
circumstances in the present。 The representativeness heuristic
may lead to faulty decisions when：
（i） It causes you to ignore other types of relevant
information
（ii） You fail to be guided by representativeness
c） The anchoring heuristic suggests that people often do not adjust
sufficiently up or down from an original starting value when
judging the probable value of some oute。 The anchoring
heuristic may lead to faulty decisions when：
（i） The anchoring information has no validity
C。 The Psychology of Decision Making
1。 Framing of gains and losses
a） A frame is a particular description of a choice； most often
perceived in terms of gains or losses
（i） Framing a decision in terms of gains or in terms of
losses can influence the decision that is made
（ii） Knowledge of framing effects can help you
understand how people e to radically different
decisions； when faced with the same evidence
2。 Decision aversion is a situation in which the individual will try hard to
avoid making any decision at all
a） Decision aversion is most often seen in the tendency to avoid
making difficult decisions
b） Psychological forces at work in this process include：
（i） People do not like making decisions that will result in
some people having more of some desired good and
others less
（ii） People are able to anticipate the regret they will feel if
the option chosen turns out worse than the rejected
option
（iii） People do not like being accountable for decisions
that lead to bad outes
（iv） People do not like to make decisions for other people
3。 In some situations； people are decision seeking。 People are generally
happier to make decisions for themselves than to let others make
decisions for them
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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1。 The “Turing Test” is used to determine whether a puter possesses artificial intelligence。
In the test； a participant sits at a puter in one room and has a conversation with a
puter set up in another room。 If the participant cannot tell whether he or she is having
a conversation with a real person or with a puter； then the puter passes the test。
The participant can ask anything that he or she wants； there are no restrictions on
questions。 Have the class discuss what questions they would ask if they were participating
in a Turing test。 What responses would lead them to believe that they were having a
conversation with a puter or with a human？
2。 Almost everyone has experienced a “flash of insight” when the solution to a problem
seemed to appear suddenly in one’s mind。 Using personal experience as “data；” have the
class indicate how they would characterize the nature of insight？ What sort of process
seems to occur？ What triggers it？
3。 What is the motivation for engaging in reasoning for its own sake； as in solving crossword
puzzles？
4。 Have the class make simple judgments about the length of two lines drawn on the
chalkboard or the weight of typical classroom objects。 After the students make their
decision； ask them how they arrived at it。 Simple； straightforward decisions are often made
without conscious reflection or deliberation。 People simply “know” the correct answer。
What does this say about cognitive processes？
5。 Have the class consider the cognitive processes involved in reasoning。 What sort of
differences might you expect to see in these processes between a child of 4 and a child of
16？ What about those between a child of 16 and an adult of 45？ What about those between
an adult of 60 and an adult of 85？
6。 An interesting offshoot of this topic is the question of where is this taking us。 While for
now； AI is typically used in game and simulation programs and to help operate simple
logic functions of some mechanical devices； as it gets more sophisticated its applications
will continue to expand。 This raises the question of whether we will ever develop an AI
program as sophisticated as the human brain。 Some researchers believe this is just a matter
of time； others are not so sure。 But should we ever succeed at this； it raises some interesting
moral and spiritual questions。 Would such a machine be “conscious” and self…aware？
Would such a “self…aware” machine have “personality” or a “soul？” If we succeeded in
creating a machine with full self…awareness； would it be entitled to legal rights？ What
ethical considerations would e into play in regard to reprogramming this machine or
shutting it down？ While right now this is a question that lies in the realm of science fiction；
it may someday bee science reality。 How do students feel about this？ Do they believe
that we should even be trying to create such a machine？ What pros and cons do they see to
these efforts？
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SUPPLEMENTAL LECTURE MATERIAL
Fallacies in the Use of Language
We often have lapses in critical thinking as we speak and write。 A fallacy is a plausible argument
that rests on invalid or false inferences。 Fallacies are often used unintentionally； but they may be
used intentionally when an effort is being made to influence the listener or reader。
。 “If you know about BMW； you either own one or you want one。”
Is there anything wrong with this statement？ If so； what is wrong with it？ It is an example of the
false alternative fallacy。 It is also called dualistic or black…and…white thinking； or bifurcation。 This
fallacy occurs when it is presumed that a classification is exclusive or exhaustive。 It often takes the
form of overlooking alternatives that exist between two polar opposites。 O
