心理学与生活-第48章
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a） Adapted for American schoolchildren by Lewis Terman of
Stanford University。
b） Provided a base for the concept of intelligence quotient （IQ）；
with “IQ being the ratio of mental age （MA） to chronological
age （CA）； multiplied by 100” （in order to eliminate decimals）
c） IQ = MA 。 CA ′ 100
d） Revised in 1937； 1960； 1972； and 1986
2。 The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
a） Wechsler—Bellevue Intelligence Scale developed by David
Wechsler and first published in 1939
b） Renamed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale （WAIS） in
1955 and revised and re…released in 1981 （WAIS…R）
c） WAIS…R is designed for individuals 18 years of age and older；
and has six verbal and five performance subtests：
（i） Verbal
（a） Information
（b） Vocabulary
（e） prehension
（d） Arithmetic
（e） Similarities
（f） Digit span
（ii） Performance
（a） Block design
（b） Digit symbol
（c） Picture arrangement
（d） Picture pletion
（e） Object assembly
d） Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children； 3rd Ed。 （WISC…III） （1991）
designed for children ages 6 to 17 years
e） Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence； Revised
（WPPSI…R） （1989） designed for children ages 4 to 6。5 years
III。 Theories of Intelligence
A。 Psychometric Theories of Intelligence
1。 The most monly used statistical technique is factor analysis
2。 The goal of factor analysis is to identify the basic psychological
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dimensions of the concept being investigated
3。 Individual contributors
a） Charles Spearman concluded presence of “g；” a general
intelligence underlying all intelligent performance
b） Raymond Cattell determined general intelligence could be
broken into two relatively independent ponents
（i） Crystallized intelligence； the knowledge the
individual has already acquired and the ability to
access that knowledge
（ii） Fluid intelligence； the ability to see plex
relationships and solve problems
c） J。 P。 Guilford developed the structure of intellect model
specifying three features of intellectual tasks：
（i） Content； or type of information
（ii） Product； or form in which information is presented
（iii） Operation； or type of mental activity performed
B。 Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
1。 Stresses importance of cognitive processes in problem solving
2。 Three types of intelligence represent different ways of characterizing
effective performance
a） ponential intelligence is defined by the ponent or
mental processes that underlie thinking and problem solving
b） Experiential intelligence captures people’s ability to deal with
two extremes： novel vs。 very routine problems
c） Contextual intelligence is reflected in the practical management
of day…to…day affairs
C。 Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences and Emotional Intelligence
1。 Theory expands the definition of intelligence beyond skills covered on
an IQ test
2。 Gardner identifies numerous intelligences； covering a range of human
experience
a） Linguistic intelligence
b） Logical…mathematical ability
c） Naturalist
d） Spatial ability
e） Musical ability
f） Bodily Kinesthetic ability
g） Interpersonal ability
h） Intrapersonal ability
3。 Emotional Intelligence （EQ） is related to Gardner’s interpersonal and
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intrapersonal intelligences。 EQ has four parts：
a） The ability to perceive； appraise； and express emotions
accurately and appropriately
b） The ability to use emotions to facilitate thinking
c） The ability to understand and analyze emotions and to use
emotional knowledge effectively
d） The ability to regulate one’s emotions to promote both
emotional and intellectual growth
IV。 The Politics of Intelligence
A。 History of Group parisons
1。 Henry Goddard （early 1900s） advocated testing of immigrants and
selectively excluding those found to be “mentally defective”
2。 “Evidence” for exclusion derived from case studies of two families； the
Juke and the Kallikak families； that allegedly had produced defective
human offspring for generations
B。 Heredity and IQ
1。 Heritability is based on an estimate within a given group； but cannot
be used to interpret between group differences
2。 A heritability estimate of a particular trait； such as intelligence； is based
on the proportion of the variability in test scores on that trait that can
be traced to genetic factors
3。 For human characteristics in general； differences between gene pools
of different racial groups are minute； as pared to genetic
differences among individual members of the same group
C。 Environments and IQ
1。 Research has most often focused on global measures of environment；
such as the influence of socioeconomic status on IQ
2。 “Head Start” taught us that：
a） IQ can easily be affected by the environment
b） An enriched environment must be sustained if the results are
to last
D。 Culture and the Validity of IQ Tests
1。 Systematic bias makes some tests invalid and unfair for minorities
2。 Ongoing concern exists as to whether it is possible to devise an IQ test
that is “culture…fair”
3。 Stereotype Threat–the threat of being at risk for confirming a negative
stereotype of one’s group–can bring about the poor performance
encoded in the stereotype
V。Creativity
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A。 Creativity is the individual’s ability to generate ideas of products that are both novel and
appropriate to the circumstances in which they were generated
B。 Assessing Creativity
1。 Many approaches to rating individuals as creative or uncreative focus
on divergent thinking； the ability to generate a variety of unusual but
appropriate solutions to a problem。
2。 Exceptional Creativity and Madness
a） The exemplary creator who emerges from assessments of
creativity as almost off the scale
b） Gardner alludes to a mon stereotype of the exemplary
creator—their life experiences border on or include the
experience of madness
VI。 Assessment and Society
A。 The primary goal of psychological assessment is to make accurate assessments of people
that are as free as possible of errors of assessors’ judgments
B。 Three ethical concerns are central to the controversy of psychological assessment
1。 The fairness of test…based decisions
2。 The utility of tests for evaluating education
3。 The implications of using test scores as labels to categorize
individuals
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1。 Western culture places high value on intelligence； so much so that we begin intelligence
testing of our children as soon as they enter the public school system。 Children are
routinely tested； using a variety of assessment instruments。 Testing is followed by school
counselors meeting parents to provide feedback regarding the child’s performance。
Inevitably； the child’s scores bee “cocktail party conversation；” with parents
paring their children’s scores； even though their children may not have been assessed
using the same instruments； or under the same circumstances。 Discuss with the class the
range of potential problems that can result from such activities。
2。 Given the current three…part definition of intelligence as proposed by Sternberg； ask if
members of the class feel that any one aspect of intelligence is more important than the
others？ If so； have them defend their perspectives。
3。 Discuss Gardner’s multiple intelligences。 How does the class perceive these multiple areas
of intelligence interacting with each other？ In which area do various class members feel
they are most intelligent？
4。 What is meant by “the politicization of intelligence”？ What is the significance of this
activity； and what is the impact of it on us as individuals？
5。 Suppose intelligence and creativity were negatively correlated； and you could be trained to
increase one of them。 Which would you choose？ Ask the class their opinions and discuss
choices with them。 Why did they select the one that they did？
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6。 Does the class perceive “street smarts” as a special kind of intelligence？ Why or why not？
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SUPPLEMENTAL LECTURE MATERIAL
Aspects of Intelligence
Psychometric psychology represents the quantitative approach to the measurement of intelligence；
specifically； to the measurement of mental functioning。 Unlike Piaget； whose approach was
qualitative in nature； psychometricians are more concerned with what people know and how they
perform； pared to others； than how they came to know something。
What is intelligence？ For starters； it is an elusive concept and； as the term is used today； usually
refers to thinking and acting in ways that are goal…directed and adaptive （Siegler； 1991； p。 200）。 In
practice； we usually think of intelligence as involving three main sets of ideas：
Practical problem…solving ability： The ability to get to the heart of a problem； accurately
interpreting relevant information； seeing all aspects of the problem； and reasoning through the
problem in a logical manner。
Verbal ability： Speaking and writing clearly and articulately； having detailed knowledge about
a specific field； reading widely and with good prehension； having a good vocabulary； and
dealing effectively with other people。
Social petence： Skills include displaying curiosity； being sensitive to the needs and desires
of others； being on time； having a “social conscience；” and making carefully considered fair
judgments。
How do we study intelligence？ There are multiple ways：
The Psychometric approach： Posits that intelligence can be described in terms of mental factors
and that tests can be constructed to reveal individual differences in those factors that underlie
mental performance。 These factors include：
。 Verbal factors： Includes vocabulary； reading prehension； story pletion； and verbal
analogies。
。 Spatial factors： Such as 3…dimensional rotation abilities； maze learning； and form…board
performance。
We use standardized intelligence quotient （IQ） tests to measure intelligence； so IQ tests are the
instruments that ultimately provide the data for theory construction。 Developed around 1900 by
Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon； the first IQ tests were used to assess school…related abilities and
to differentiate among children who could benefit from standard school instruction and those
requiring “special” education。
Information processing approaches to intelligence testing look at individual differences in how
information is encoded； the speed of processing that information； ease of categorization； and
metacognition （which coordinates the first three）。 Although the differences measured between and
within individuals change across the life span； there is nothing “inherently developmental” about
the information…processing approach。 Information processing is part of cognitive psychology； some
aspects of which are applicable to developmental psychology。
Piagetian approaches look at individual differences in the rate of development。 This
