心理学与生活-第50章

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time；　to　count　money；　and　to　find　their　way　around　in　the　environment。　
Severe　Mental　Retardation。　Severely　delayed/disabled　children　have　an　IQ　of　20　to　35。　They　can　
learn　some　language　and　self…help　skills。　Most　of　these　children　are　institutionalized。　About　8　
percent　of　people　with　an　IQ　below　70　are　severely　delayed/disabled。　

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Profound　Mental　Retardation。　These　children　have　an　IQ　of　less　than　20；　and　require　supervision　
and　nursing　care　all　their　lives。　About　1　percent　of　delayed/disabled　children　are　profoundly　
retarded。　

It　is　probably　more　meaningful　to　classify　the　developmentally　delayed　or　disabled　individual　
according　to　the　cause　of　their　retardation。　

Genetic　causes。　Down　syndrome　is　the　result　of　a　genetic　aberration　（it　is　not　a　hereditary　problem）　
that　results　in　three　chromosomes　at　the　21st　position　rather　than　two。　It　is　the　most　mon　
genetic　cause　of　retardation；　and　occurs　in　approximately　one　of　every　1；000　live　births。　The　
incidence　of　this　disorder　has　decreased　as　a　function　of　the　ability　to　detect　it　through　
amniocentesis　and　chorionic　villi　sampling。　The　next　most　mon　genetic　cause　of　retardation　is　
phenylketonuria　（PKU）；　a　metabolic　disease　carried　by　a　recessive　gene。　It　can　be　detected　shortly　
after　birth　and　controlled。　There　are　a　number　of　other　relatively　rare　genetic　causes　of　mental　
retardation；　including　Tay…Sachs　disease；　Klinefelter’s　syndrome；　and　Niemann…Pick　disease。　

Intrauterine　infection　or　trauma。　Infections　contracted　by　the　mother　can　cause　mental　retardation。　
These　causes　include　encephalitis；　rubella；　and　syphilis。　Brain　damage　to　the　fetus　can　also　result　
from　malnutrition　and　dietary　deficiencies；　poisoning　by　lead　or　carbon　monoxide；　or　drug　use　by　
the　mother；　especially　alcohol；　during　the　mother’s　pregnancy。　Recent　evidence　supports　a　
correlation　between　use　of　crack　cocaine　and　fetal　injury。　

The　birth　process。　Premature　children　sometimes　have　an　immature　nervous　system；　and　anoxia　
（oxygen　deprivation）　or　head　injury　during　birth　can　damage　the　brain　and　cause　mental　
retardation。　All　of　these　causes　together　probably　account　for　no　more　than　30　percent　of　all　cases　of　
developmental　delay/disability；　and　all　have　identifiable　physical　causes。　In　many　cases；　these　
children　have　physical　deficiencies　and　deformities　in　addition　to　their　retardation。　It　is　striking　to　
note　how　many　of　such　cases　could　be　prevented　or　avoided；　given　appropriate　prenatal　care　of　the　
mother；　and　the　mother’s　knowledge　and　acceptance　of　her　responsibility　to　protect　her　unborn　
child。　

Cultural—familial　causes。　The　majority　of　cases　of　retardation　fall　into　this　category。　Children　in　
this　category　are　usually　mildly　delayed　or　disabled。　Usually；　they　do　not　have　other　physical　
handicaps　and　generally　do　not　look　any　different　from　normal　children。　

Cultural—familial　retardation　is　most　likely　to　occur　among　the　children　of　the　poor；　often　in　
families　that　have　struggled　against　poverty　for　several　generations。　There　are　often　several　
developmentally　delayed　or　disabled　individuals　among　the　relatives；　and　sometimes　one　or　both　of　
the　parents　is　or　are　delayed　or　disabled。　In　cultural—familial　retardation；　it　is　difficult　to　separate　
the　effects　of　heredity　and　environment；　because　neither　is　favorable。　Many　psychologists　currently　
think　that　heredity　sets　an　upper　limit；　and　that　environment　determines　how　closely　an　individual　
will　approach　his　or　her　maximum　intellectual　capacity。　For　example；　in　the　case　of　a　child　with　
cultural…familial　retardation；　the　genes　may　set　a　limit　of　80　or　90；　or　higher；　but　because　of　lack　of　
language　and　cognitive　stimulation；　his　or　her　test　score　could　be　60　or　65。　

The　study　of　the　Hollow　Children　is　highly　instructive。　There　was　a　group　of　people　of　English　and　
Scots…Irish　descent　who　settled　and　lived　as　a　little　subculture　near　the　Atlantic　coast　in　Virginia　for　
many　years。　The　land　they　lived　on　was　subsequently　granted　to　German　immigrants　and　the　Scots…
Irish　were　forced　to　move　into　hollows　in　the　Blue　Ridge　Mountains。　They　formed　a　number　of　small　
munities　that　varied　in　degree　of　isolation　from　civilization。　In　1932；　an　investigator　named　
Sherman　studied　these　people；　reasoning　that　the　citizens　of　the　various　Hollows　munities　had　
a　mon　gene　pool；　and　he　was　interested　in　whether　isolation　from　civilization　had　affected　the　
intellectual　ability　of　the　children。　Isolation　meant　things　like　no　road　in　and　out；　no　post　office；　no　
newspapers　or　magazines；　and；　of　course；　since　the　study　was　done　in　the　early　1930s；　there　was　no　
radio　or　TV。　In　Colvin　Hollow；　the　most　isolated　of　the　munities；　school　had　been　in　session　for　

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a　total　of　16　months　during　the　years　between　1918　and　1930；　and　there　were　only　three　literate　
adults　in　the　munity。　To　test　the　children’s　intelligence；　Sherman　used　the　Stanford…Binet　and　
other　tests　that　are　not　so　language　dependent。　

The　results　showed　that　the　more　isolated　the　munity；　the　lower　the　IQ　scores　of　the　children。　
The　average　of　the　test　scores　in　the　least　isolated　munity　was　close　to　the　population　mean；　
while　the　average　of　the　scores　of　the　children　in　the　most　isolated　munities　was　below　70。　
Sherman　tested　children　from　6　to　16　years　of　age；　and　one　of　his　notable　findings　was　that　IQ　
scores　declined　with　age。　In　the　more　isolated　munities；　the　IQs　of　the　6…　to　8…year…olds　averaged　
about　80。　The　scores　of　the　14…　to　16…year…olds　averaged　about　50。　

There　are　a　number　of　other　studies　that　confirm　the　negative　effect　an　impoverished　environment　
can　have　on　intellectual　development。　It　is　a　challenge　to　a　society　to　dedicate　resources　for　the　
prevention　of　cultural—familial　retardation。　Because　of　President　Johnson’s　“war　on　poverty；”　
funds　for　Operation　Head　Start　were　made　available　in　the　mid…1960s。　A　problem　arose　because　
although　money　was　available；　the　educators　lacked　the　background　research　to　develop　a　clear　
idea　concerning　how　one　goes　about　giving　a　child　a　“head　start。”　Some　years　later；　the　program　
was　pronounced　a　failure　and　used　as　a　rationale　for　reducing　funds　for　early　childhood　education。　
In　reality；　the　program　was　not　an　unqualified　failure。　In　some　places；　it　was　quite　successful；　and　
provided　a　wealth　of　data　concerning　methods　and　techniques。　If　we　made　another　concentrated　
effort；　maybe　it　would　be　very　successful。　We　are　often　very　shortsighted；　unwilling　to　spend　a　
dollar　today　to　save　hundreds　of　dollars　in　the　future。　Perhaps　we　would　serve　ourselves　and　our　
children　better；　if　we　realized　that　no　amount　of　money　saved　in　the　future　can　obviate　the　fact　that　
our　children　are　our　future。　

Single　versus　Multiple　Intelligence　

Is　intelligence　a　single；　inborn　ability　that　is　relatively　unaffected　by　the　environment；　as　suggested　
by　Spearman’s　“g…factor？”　Or　is　intelligence　really　a　bination　of　several　different　abilities；　as　
suggested　by　Gardner’s　theory　of　multiple　intelligences。　Or　does　it　involve　a　bination　of　some　
inborn　factor　that　accounts　for　some　intellectual　abilities　and　a　variety　of　specific　intellectual　skills　
that　operate　independently　of　each　other？　This　is　a　great　discussion　topic　that　students　usually　
have　strong　opinions　about。　You　might　add；　that　part　of　the　problem；　even　among　the　“experts”　in　
this　field；　is　there　is　no　single；　universally　accepted　definition　of　intelligence　from　which　to　focus　
the　argument。　How　you　feel　about　intelligence　can　vary　greatly　depending　upon　how　you　define　it。　
The　average　student　or　person　on　the　street　tends　to　view　intelligence　differently　than　the　average　
teacher　or　professor。　And　both　of　them　tend　to　view　intelligence　differently　than　the　average　
scientific　researcher　studying　intelligence。　With　this　type　of　disagreement；　is　it　possible　to　know　
how　many　different　types　of　intelligence　there　are？　

IQ　Tests　and　Labeling　

One　of　the　dangers　in　assigning　people　IQ　scores　in　grade　school　is　the　danger　of　labeling　the　
student　based　on　an　IQ　score；　and　then　having　that　label　bee　a　self…fulfilling　prophecy。　While　IQ　
can　be　useful　for　identifying　children　who　are　either　gifted　or　retarded；　how　useful　is　it　to　assign　
numbers　and　labels　to　those　falling　within　the　middle　ranges？　If　one　assumes　that　IQ　is　measuring　
primarily　a　set　of　school　skills；　rather　than　one’s　ability　to　learn　across　the　board；　is　it　fair　to　label　
someone　as　“smart”　or　“stupid”　based　on　an　IQ　score？　While；　no　one　officially　uses　such　terms　as　
“stupid”　to　label　someone　based　on　IQ；　it　informally　happens　all　the　time；　and　children　can　be　
vicious　in　their　use　of　such　labels　on　each　other。　Since　people　tend　to　have　stereotypes　about　what　
“smart”　and　“stupid”　mean；　how　does　such　a　label　positively　or　negatively　affect　a　child？　Can　it　
change　the　way　parents　and　teachers　interact　with　such　children？　Could　such　labels　cause　a　child　
to　lose　self…confidence；　leading　to　even　worse　future　performance；　thus　fulfilling　the　label？　Many　

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people　believe　that　labeling　can　create　a　self…fulfilling　prophecy。　The　Rosenthal　and　Jacobson　（1968）　
study；　discussed　in　the　text；　found　evidence　of　a　positive　self…fulfilling　prophecy　when　teachers　
were　led　to　believe　that　certain　students　were　“smart。”　A　reverse　negative　self…fulfilling　prophecy　
seems　just　as　possible　when　students　are　labeled　“stupid”　or　“not　smart。”　The　text　also　discusses　
this　issue　in　regard　to　the　larger　effect　of　stereotypes　and　the　poorer　performance　of　African　
Americans　on　tests　when　they　believe　the　tests　measure　intelligence　than　when　they　are　just　lab　
experiments。　The　results　of　the　Steele　and　Aronson　（1995）　study　indicate　that　just　being　a　member　of　
a　group　that　has　been　stereotyped　as　not　being　smart　can　lower　individual　performance。　How　much　
more　does　believing　that　you；　as　an　individual；　are　not　smart；　affect　performance？　Given　how　many　
areas　of　practical　intelligence　that　IQ　does　not　seem　to　measure　or　predict；　we　need　to　be　very　careful　
about　negatively　labeling　children　on　the　basis　of　IQ　alone。　This　means　doing　a　better　job　of　
educating　people　on　the　limitations　of　what　intelligence　tests　tell　us　about　children’s　abilities。　

BIOGRAPHICAL　PROFILES　

Alfred　Binet　（1857—1911）　

Born　in　Nice；　France；　Binet　received　his　law　degree　from　Lycee　St。　Louis　in　1878；　and　his　Ph。D。　in　
science　from　the　University　of　Paris　in　1894。　Binet　was　perhaps　the　most　respected　French　
psychologist　near　the　turn　of　the　century　and　was　responsible；　with　colleague　Henri　Beaunis；　for　
founding　the　first　French　psychological　laboratory。　Binet　was　fascinated　by　the　concepts　of　
hypnotism　and　suggestibility；　and　became　known　for　his　studies　of　these　phenomena　before　1900。　

Binet’s　reputation　in　psychology；　however；　stems　most　from　his　and　colleague　Theodore　Simon’s　
first　test　of　intelligence；　for　which　Binet　was　missioned　by　the　French　minister　of　public　
instruction。　The　test　would　later　be　brought　to　America；　b