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心理学与生活-第52章

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been in high school。 At 17; he had been able to add; subtract; and multiply without using a 
calculator。 Twenty years later; those skills seemed to have disappeared。 To see if he could still make 
the grade; Greene decided to retake the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT); the three…hour examination 
of verbal and mathematical abilities that many colleges use to select students for admission。 Greene 
sent in his 11; and on the designated Saturday morning; he showed up at his local high school 
with six sharpened no。 2 pencils in his pocket。 After one hour; “all of us looked dazed; unhappy; 
and disoriented; although I believe that I was the only student to go to the water fountain and take 
an Inderal for his blood pressure” (Greene; 1985)。 

The SAT was designed as a standardized measure of high school students’ academic performance。 
Admissions officers had difficulty interpreting grade…point averages from thousands of high 
schools with different standards and grading policies。 Although the tests were designed as 
objective evaluations; they have been accused of bias; and; despite many revisions over the years; it 
has been difficult to quell those accusations。 Across all ethnic groups; average SAT scores increase 
as family ine goes up。 Whites and Asian Americans consistently outperform Mexican 
Americans; Puerto Ricans; and African Americans (Hacker; 1986)。 Men; on the average; score 
higher than women do (Gordon; 1990)。 

However; the SAT is changing。 Consider the question of calculators。 When the SAT was introduced 
in 1941; pocket calculators did not exist。 When Greene took the test for the second time; the proctor 
instructed that “Calculators or calculator watches may not be used。” 

When Greene’s test results finally arrived in the mail; his hands were shaking。 He felt ridiculous。 
After all; he already had a college degree and a successful career。 Nevertheless; he nervously ripped 
open the envelope。 Not surprisingly for a writer; Greene’s verbal score had gone up 56 points。 In 
math; over the two decades; his score had nose…dived by 200 points。 Just as it is difficult to know 
why some groups perform better than others on the SAT; it is impossible to know for sure why Bob 
Greene’s math score plummeted。 Wasn’t the test supposed to measure his basic aptitude for math— 
what he understood and not just what he had learned? Had his math aptitude decreased because 
in his work he does not often use the math skills that he once practiced regularly in high school? 
Would he have improved his score if he had signed up for a course that prepared him in advance 
for the test? Had he just been watching too much TV? 

181 


CHAPTER 11 
Human Development across the Life Span 

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 

On pletion of this chapter; students should be able to: 

1。 Describe the significance and characteristics of the pubescent growth spurt 
2。 Explain the physical and psychological changes that occur during the adult years 
3。 Describe Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and discuss their significance 
4。 Define the concept of critical periods and explain its significance to development 
5。 Describe Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development 
6。 ment on the importance and influence of culture to development 
7。 Identify Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning 
8。 Describe the importance of attachment styles and the problems experienced by those 
without secure attachments 
9。 Describe the influence of gender roles and gender identity on development 
10。 Describe the developmental tasks and challenges of adulthood 
CHAPTER OUTLINE 

I。 Studying and Explaining Development 
A。 Developmental psychology is the area of psychology that is concerned with changes in 
physical and psychological functioning that occur from conception across the entire life 
span 
B。 Documenting Development 
1。 Documenting development requires learning to differentiate between 
research that documents age changes and research that documents 
age differences 
a) Age change documents the ways in which individuals change 
as they grow older 

b) Age differences document the ways in which individuals of 
different ages differ from one another 

2。 Normative investigations seek to describe characteristics of a specific 
age or stage of development; providing norms based on observations 
of many individuals; such research efforts permit distinctions to be 
made between: 
a) Chronological age: The number of months or years since birth 

b) Developmental age: The chronological age at which most 

182 


CHAPTER 11: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 

individuals display the particular level of physical and 

mental development demonstrated by that individual 

3。 Norms permit a standardized basis (such as the Bayley Scales in the 
text) for parisons between individuals and between groups 
4。 Research designs 
a) Longitudinal designs make repeated observations of the same 
individuals; over an extended period of time 

b) Cross…sectional designs (includes most developmental research) 
observe and pare groups of individuals of different 
chronological ages; at the same time 

c) Sequential designs bine the best features of both 
longitudinal and cross…sectional designs; by studying; over 
time; individuals from different birth cohorts 

C。 Explaining Development 
1。 Explaining shared aspects of development requires consideration of 
both universal aspects of change and the unique aspects of change 
that characterize each individual 
2。 The nature—nurture contrast is most often applied to the childhood 
aspects of change by asking such questions as: 
a) To what extent is development determined by heredity 
(nature)? 

b) To what extent is development a product of learned 
experiences (nurture)? 

3。 John Locke proposed empiricism; a nurture perspective that credits 
human development to experience 
4。 Jean…Jacques Rousseau proposed a nativist view; that the evolutionary 
legacy each individual brings into the world is the mold that shapes 
development 
5。 Locke’s and Rousseau’s respective positions fail to do justice to 
human behavior; because plex actions are shaped by both 
heredity and experience 
a) Heredity provides potential 

b) Experience determines the manner in which potential is (or is 
not) fulfilled 

II。Physical Development across the Life Span 
A。 Physical Development refers to an organism’s changes; maturation; and growth from 
conception and continuing across the life span 
B。 Prenatal and Childhood Development 
1。 Physical Development in the Womb 
183 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

a) A zygote is formed when a male’s sperm cell fertilizes a 
female’s egg 

b) Earliest behavior; the heartbeat; appears during prenatal 
period; about 3 weeks after conception 

c) Spontaneous movements observed by week 8 

d) After week 8; the developing embryo is referred to as a fetus 

e) Mother feels fetal movements at about week 16 

f) Prenatal brain growth generates 250;000 neurons per minute 

(i) Proliferation and migration of neurons in humans 
and many other mammals occur prenatally 
(ii) Development of branching processes of axons and 
dendrites occurs largely after birth 
2。 Babies Prewired for Survival 
a) Hearing functions before birth; as evidenced by neonates 
preference for its mother’s voice 

b) Vision is less well developed at birth than are other senses; 
and though “legally blind;” neonates’ eyes turn in the 
direction of a voice 

(i) Infants perceive best large objects displaying high 
contrast 
(ii) By 4 months of age; infants prefer looking at 
contoured objects rather than plain ones; plex 
objects to simple ones; and whole faces to those with 
disarrayed features 
3。 Growth and Maturation in Childhood 
a) Disproportionate early growth takes place within the head 

(i) Total mass of axons and neurons rapidly increases 
the total mass of brain cells 
(ii) Infant boys’ weight doubles in the first 6 months of 
life; and triples by age 1 
(iii) At age 2; the child’s trunk is about half its adult 
length 
(iv) Genital tissue growth is unremarkable until 
adolescence 
b) Much of early growth occurs in concentrated bursts 

c) In most children; physical growth is acpanied by 
maturation of motor ability 

d) Maturation refers to the process of growth typical of all 
members of a species who are reared in the species usual 
habitat; and describes systematic changes occurring; over 
time; in bodily functioning and behavior 

e) Maturation is influenced by genetic factors; pre… and postnatal 
chemical environments; and sensory factors that are constant 
for all members of the species 

184 


CHAPTER 11: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 

f) By ages 6 to 7; most basic motor skills are in place 

4。 Physical Development in Adolescence 
a) First concrete indication of childhood’s end is the pubescent 
growth spurt; about age 10 for girls and about 12 for boys; with 
flow of hormones into bloodstream 

b) Puberty; sexual maturity; is reached 2 to 3 years following the 
onset of the growth spurt 

(i) For females; puberty begins with menarche 
(ii) For males; puberty begins with production of live 
sperm 
(iii) Physical changes often bring an awareness of sexual 
feelings 
c) Physical changes of adolescence may exaggerate the 
adolescent’s concern with their body image; their subjective 
view of their appearance 

(i) Females seem to have less average confidence in their 
physical attractiveness dm do males 
(ii) When exaggerated; females preoccupation with body 
image and aspects of the social self can lead to self…
destructive behavior; such as eating disorders 
(a) Anorexia; involves self…imposed starvation 
(b) Bulimia; involves binging and purging 
C。 Physical Changes In Adulthood 
1。 Some senses may bee less acute 
2。 Changes occur gradually 
3。 Many physical changes occur as a result of disuse; rather than aging 
4。 Some changes are largely unavoidable 
a) Visual function diminishes for most people over age 65 

(i) Lenses of eyes bee yellowed and less flexible 
(ii) Lens rigidity impacts adaptation to dark 
b) Hearing loss is mon past age 60 

(i) Older adults may have difficulty hearing high…
frequency sounds; with males experiencing more 
difficulty than females 
(ii) Changes in hearing are gradual and may not be 
realized until they are extreme 
c) Reproductive and sexual functioning changes 

(i) Females experience menopause around age 50 
(ii) Quantity of sperm in males decreases after age 40; 
and seminal fluid volume declines past age 60 
(iii) Increasing age and physical change do not 
necessarily impair other aspects of sexual experience 
III。 Cognitive Development across the Life Span 
185 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

A。 Cognitive development is the study of the processes and products of the mind; as they 
emerge and change over time 
B。 Piaget’s Insights into Mental Development 
1。 Piaget saw the mind as an active biological system; seeking; selecting; 
interpreting; and reorganizing environmental information to fit with 
or adjust to its own existing mental structures 
2。 

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