心理学与生活-第6章

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anything　they　want　written　on　it。　This　legitimate　pony　has　value　in　that　preparing　it　is　a　type　of　
active　study　and　because　clutching　their　pony　tends　to　reduce　anxiety　for　students　who　panic　
on　test　day。　

How　will　I　provide　feedback　to　students　after　tests？　

On　the　day　of　the　test；　let　students　know　when　feedback　will　be　provided。　The　longer　students　have　to　wait　
for　correct　answers；　the　less　interested　they　bee　in　checking　their　work。　Provide　immediate　feedback　if　
you　can。　Here　are　two　suggestions　for　acplishing　this：　

。　Students　record　their　answers　on　both　the　test　and　the　answer　sheet。　They　hand　in　the　answer　
sheet　and　keep　the　test；　scoring　it　themselves　from　a　key　or　keys　you　post　immediately　after　the　
test。　The　puterized　test　bank　makes　it　possible　for　you　to　provide　feedback　that　includes　
both　correct　answers　and　page　references　from　the　text。　
。　Create　an　exam　that　can　be　pleted　in　30　minutes　（25–30　multiple…choice　questions）　and　
devote　the　rest　of　a　50…minute　class　to　feedback。　Ask　students　to　jot　down　their　answers　on　their　
own　paper　after　they　plete　the　test。　Then　collect　the　students’　answer　sheets；　while　students　
retain　their　notes　of　their　answers　and　the　test。　Review　the　test　items；　allowing　students　to　ask　
questions　about　perceived　ambiguous　items。　At　the　end　of　the　class；　collect　the　tests　and　the　
students’　notes。　With　this　procedure；　you　only　have　to　return　the　graded　answer　sheets　in　order　
for　students　to　receive　maximum　feedback。　
How　can　I　avoid　hassles　about　test　items？　

First；　select　and　write　items　carefully；　being　sure　that　you　agree　that　the　keyed　answer　is　the　best　answer。　
Then　make　your　key　carefully。　Examine　the　printout　of　scores　before　posting　it；　and　check　any　item　for　
ambiguity　or　incorrect　keying　if　half　or　more　of　the　students　miss　it。　If　you　make　a　mistake　in　your　choice　of　
items　or　on　the　key；　correct　it　graciously。　

Do　not　spend　class　time　arguing　about　test　items。　Have　students　submit　their　case　in　writing　if　they　feel　that　
their　choice　for　an　item　is　better　than　the　keyed　answer。　

DECISIONS　ABOUT　EVALUATION　

Should　I　use　numbers　or　letters　to　grade　students’　work？　

Any　activity　that　is　to　contribute　to　students’　grades　should　be　assigned　a　numerical　score　so　an　
unambiguous　point　system　can　be　used　for　determining　final　grades。　Some　students　have　difficulty　
understanding　that　an　A　on　a　minor　assignment　is　not　weighted　as　heavily　as　a　D　on　the　final　exam。　

If　you　use　large　numbers；　particularly　for　a　large　class；　the　range　of　final　totals　for　students　is　larger　and　the　
cutoff　between　letter　grades　appears　reasonable。　

How　will　I　assign　final　grades？　

There　are　two　traditional　methods　for　assigning　grades；　the　criterion…based　system　and　the　normative…based　
or　on…the…curve　system。　

In　criterion…based　grading；　criteria　are　published　in　the　syllabus。　For　example；　if　a　student　gets　92　percent　to　
100　percent　of　the　maximum　number　of　points；　the　student　can　be　assured　of　an　A。　This　method　is　preferred　
by　the　majority　of　instructors　because　it　is　easy　for　students　to　understand　and　acmodates　variability　in　
the　performance　of　different　classes。　

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In　normative…based　grading　it　is　predetermined　that　you　will；　for　example；　give　an　A　to　the　top　10　percent　of　
students；　a　B　to　students　in　the　next　20　percent；　and　so　forth。　This　method　has　the　advantage　of　not　
requiring　you　to　mit　yourself　to　absolute　criteria；　but　it　has　the　disadvantage　of　causing　some　students　
to　be　uncertain　about　where　they　stand　during　the　term。　Also；　normative…based　grading　assumes　that　your　
class　is　a　random　sample　of　students　who　take　introductory　courses　at　your　school　and　does　not　take　into　
account　that　some　classes　as　a　whole　are　better　than　others。　Identical　student　performance　could　earn　an　A　
in　one　class　and　a　B　in　another　when　the　normative…based　system　is　used。　

Should　I　use　standard　scores？　

Most　students　have　difficulty　understanding　standard　scores。　（How　can　a　score　of　zero　be　a　C？　Does　a　
negative　score　mean　that　I　know　less　than　nothing　does？）　Standard　scores　also　have　the　disadvantage　of　
having　a　small　range。　One　situation　in　which　standard　scores　should　be　considered　is　when　the　test　means　
for　the　term　are　unequal　and　you　are　dropping　students’　lowest　test　scores。　

DECISIONS　ABOUT　EXTRA　CREDIT　WORK　

Should　I　provide　an　opportunity　for　students　to　get　course　credit　for　work　that　is　not　a　class　requirement？　If　
you　fail　to　state　a　firm　policy　on　extra　credit　work　in　the　syllabus；　you　will　be　visited　by　failing　students　
during　the　closing　weeks　of　the　term。　They　would　like　to　write　papers；　or　do　something　to　raise　their　grades。　
A　no…extra　credit　policy　is　advised；　with　the　rationale　that　students　who　are　failing　the　required　work　would　
be　better　off　spending　their　time　on　the　text　rather　than　writing　a　paper　that　is　likely　to　be　poorly　written　or　
plagiarized。　

If　there　are　to　be　opportunities　for　extra　credit；　they　should　be　available　to　all　students；　not　just　those　who　
e　to　your　office　with　sad　stories。　For　your　best　students；　extra　credit　work　is　likely　to　be　perceived　as　
required；　and　you　may　find　that　they　are　more　likely　to　take　advantage　of　opportunities　to　earn　points　than　
students　who　need　them　more。　

Extra　credit　work　will　increase　your　workload。　The　bookkeeping　for　volunteer　work　or　research　
participation　can　be　a　headache；　and　rewritten　or　replaced　papers　means　more　papers　to　read　and　grade。　
However；　this　should　not　deter　you　if　you　can　provide　extra　credit　work　that　is　truly　a　beneficial　experience　
for　students。　

What　kind　of　extra　credit　opportunities　could　I　provide？　

One　extra　credit　option　that　is　a　learning　experience　for　students　and　a　service　to　the　munity　is　
volunteer　work　in　places　such　as　sheltered　workshops；　child　care　centers；　nursing　homes；　and　shelters　for　
the　homeless。　If　you　can　arrange　this　type　of　activity；　be　sure　to　set　a　limit　on　the　amount　of　credit　that　can　be　
earned。　

Introductory　students　are　frequently　an　important　source　of　human　subjects　for　research。　If　research　
participation　is　not　a　requirement　at　your　school；　you　might　consider　using　it　as　an　extra　credit　option。　

If　you　assign　several　short　papers　during　the　term；　you　could　allow　students　to　rewrite　or　replace　a　paper　
that　has　received　a　low　score。　Rewriting　a　poor　paper　based　on　your　ments　and　corrections　can　be　
especially　beneficial　for　students　who　need　help　with　writing　skills。　

WRITTEN　ASSIGNMENTS　IN　THE　INTRODUCTORY　
COURSE　

As　student’s　writing　skills　have　deteriorated；　educators　have　bee　increasingly　reluctant　to　include　
writing　assignments　as　a　course　requirement。　If　this　deterioration　is　to　be　reversed；　it　seems　apparent　that　

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instructors　in　disciplines　other　than　English　must　assume　some　of　the　responsibility　for　providing　writing　
experiences　for　students。　

DESIGNING　WRITING　ASSIGNMENTS　

The　assignments　should　be　related　to　the　objectives　of　the　course。　They　should　increase　insight　into　
psychological　concepts；　develop　critical　thinking　skills；　or　stimulate　personal　growth。　The　form　of　the　
assignments　can　be：　

。　A　take…home　paper　in　which　students　answer　a　specific　question。　
。　A　psychological　diary。　In　writing　the　diary；　students　describe　everyday　experiences　related　to　
what　they　are　learning　in　class。　For　example；　a　student　hears　a　mercial　for　a　cold　remedy　on　
TV；　and　wonders　about　the　basis　of　the　claim　that　the　product　is　twice　as　effective　as　remedy　X；　
or　a　student　notes　that　her　father　trots　out　all　his　dissonance…reducing　strategies　whenever　
something　goes　wrong　with　the　lemon　he　bought。　
。　In…class　papers。　Students　write　a　paragraph　in　class　expressing　their　opinion　on　an　issue；　
evaluating　a　film；　or　describing　an　experience。　It　is　probably　best　not　to　grade　these　mini…
papers；　but　it　may　encourage　attendance　if　students　are　rewarded　with　a　few　points　for　
participation。　
The　assignment　should　be　clearly　worded　and　specific。　Instruction　about　the　form　of　the　paper　should　give　
detailed　instructions　on　how　the　paper　is　to　be　prepared。　The　topics　of　papers　should　be　described　in　such　a　
way　that　the　possibility　of　misinterpretation　is　minimized。　You　may　need　to　give　a　systematic　plan　for　a　
paper　or　to　enumerate　the　points　you　expect　to　be　covered。　You　can　select　questions　from　those　provided　in　
the　test　bank　or　create　your　own。　Here　is　a　list　of　verbs　you　may　find　useful　as　you　create　effective　essay　
questions：　

advise　pare　contrast　apply　

illustrate　evaluate　criticize　summarize　

relate　design　analyze　predict　

trace　justify　

take　sides　on　the　controversy　between　

explore　the　implications　of　

Specify　a　specific　purpose　or　audience　for　the　paper。　The　instructor　is　the　traditional　audience　for　student　
papers；　and　since　you　know　so　much；　students　tend　to　expect　that　you　will　not　need　important　information　
or　explanation。　An　example　of　a　specific　purpose　would　be　“to　encourage　a　friend　to　see　a　behavior　
therapist　about　a　particular　phobia。”　The　targeted　audience　could　be　students　who　have　not　taken　

introductory　psychology；　the　readers　of　Parents’　magazine；　or　a　person　who　has　written　to　Dear　Abby　about　
a　psychological　problem。　

Inform　students　about　how　their　papers　will　be　evaluated。　This　information；　as　well　as　other　details；　can　be　
specified　in　a　handout；　“All　you　need　to　know　about　writing　assignments。”　This　can　be　part　of　the　syllabus　
or　distributed　separately。　Suggestions　for　the　handout　are　outlined　below。　

。　General　discussion　of　written　assignments：　In　this　section　inform　students　how　many　papers　are　
required；　how　long　they　are　to　be；　how　topics　are　to　be　selected；　and　whether　papers　that　receive　
a　low　score　can　be　rewritten。　Students　should　not　be　allowed　to　write　more　than　one　paper　
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related　to　a　chapter。　Assign　specific　due　dates　for　the　papers　throughout　the　term　to　prevent　
students　from　handing　in　all　their　papers　on　the　last　day　of　the　term。　

。　Specific　guidelines　for　preparation　of　papers：　In　this　section　tell　students　such　things　as：　use　8。　by　
11　paper；　write　on　one　side　only；　put　the　title；　assignment　number　and　your　name　at　the　top　of　
the　first　page；　type　using　double…spacing　and　one…inch　margins；　don’t　use　plastic　covers　or　
binders。　It　is　a　good　idea　to　discuss　plagiarism　in　this　section　and　to　indicate　how　students　
should　handle　quoted　material。　
。　Evaluation　criteria：　The　three　traditional　criteria　for　evaluation　of　papers　are　content　or　ideas；　
organization；　and　mechanics。　You　may　want　to　assign　weights　to　each　of　these　criteria。　For　
example；　if　the　maximum　number　of　points　for　a　paper　is　25；　you　might　assign　12　for　content；　8　
for　organization；　and　5　for　mechanics。　
。　Topics：　Provide　a　chapter…by…chapter　list　of　the　topics　from　which　students　can　choose。　Having　
this　list　at　the　beginning　of　the　term　gives　students　a　chance　to　make　tentative　choices　of　topics　
that　interest　them。　
EVALUATING　STUDENT　WRITING　

There　are　two　extremes　to　be　avoided　in　evaluating　papers。　One　is　over　grading　or　providing　excessive　
feedback　and　the　other　is　putting　a　grade　on　the　paper　w