心理学与生活-第62章
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B。 Atttibutions for Success and Failure
1。 Attributions are judgments about the causes of outes that can
impact level of motivation
2。 Attributions can vary along three dimensions： locus of control；
stability versus instability； and global versus specific
a） Locus of control orientation is a belief that outes of our
actions are contingent on：
（i） What we do （internal control orientation）
（ii） Environmental factors that are outside our personal
control （external control orientation）
b） The dimension of stability versus instability can be assessed by
asking to what extent is a causal factor likely to be stable and
consistent over time？
c） The global versus specific dimension can be assessed by asking
to what extent is a causal factor highly specific and limited to
a particular task or situation？
3。 Attribution made will impact both emotions and subsequent
motivation settings； regardless of the true reason for success or failure；
thus beliefs are important because they lead to：
a） Different interpretations of past performance and general
worth
b） Different emotions； goals； and effort in the present situation
c） Different motivation in the future
4。 Seligman posits explanatory style； the individual’s level of optimism or
pessimism； as affecting activity and passivity； persisting and giving
up； taking risks and playing it safe
a） Pessimistic attributional style focuses on causes of failure as
being internally generated； with situation and one’s role in
causing it as stable and global
b） Optimistic attributional style attributes failure to external causes
and to events that are unstable or modifiable and specific
c） Causal explanations reverse when oute is a success
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CHAPTER 12： MOTIVATION
C。 Work and Organizational Psychology
1。 Organizational psychologists study various aspects of
a） Human relations
b） Overall quality of life at work
2。 Apply theories of management； decision making； and development to
work settings
a） Equity theory proposes that workers are motivated to maintain
fair or equitable relationships with other relevant persons
（i） Workers note their own inputs and outes； and
pare them with inputs and outes of other
workers
（ii） Satisfaction occurs for Worker A when （Oute A ÷
Input A = Oute B ÷ Input B）
（iii） Dissatisfaction for Worker A occurs when （Oute
A ÷ Input A 1 Oute B ÷ Input B）
b） Expectancy theory proposes that workers are motivated when
they expect their efforts and performance on the job will result
in desired outes。 The theory emphasizes three
ponents：
（i） Expectancy： the perceived likelihood that a worker’s
efforts will result in successful performance
（ii） Valence： the perceived attractiveness of particular
outes
（iii） Instrumentality： the perception that performance will
be rewarded
V。A Hierarchy of Needs
A。 Maslow posited that the individual’s basic motives formed A Hierarchy Of Needs； with
needs at each level requiring satisfaction before achieving the next level
1。 Biological： Bottom level needs such as hunger and thirst require
satisfaction before other needs can begin operation。
2。 Safety： Requirement to attend to protection from danger； need for
security； fort； and freedom from fear。
3。 Attachment： Needs to belong； to affiliate with others； to love and to be
loved。
4。 Esteem： Needs to like oneself； to see oneself as petent and effective；
and to do what is necessary to earn the esteem of others。
5。 Cognitive： Humans demand stimulation of thought； need to know our
past； to prehend puzzles of current existence； and to predict the
future。
6。 Esthetic： Need for creativity； and the human desire for beauty and
order。
7。 Self…actualization： Individual has moved beyond basic needs in the
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quest for fullest development of his/her potential。 Individual is self…
aware； self…accepting； socially responsive； creative； spontaneous； open
to novelty and challenge
8。 Transcendence： a step beyond fulfillment of individual potential； may
lead some individuals to higher states of consciousness and a cosmic
vision of one’s part in the universe
B。 Maslow’s hierarchy presents an upbeat view of human motivation； with the core of the
theory being the need for each individual to grow and actualize his/her highest potential
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1。 William James proposed that humans rely on instinctual behaviors even more than other
animals。 Twenty…five years later； Sigmund Freud posited that humans experience drive
states that arise from life instincts and death instincts。 What is significant about the
difference in these two perspectives？
2。 How could the educational system be changed so that children have greater feelings of
choice； responsibility； and hope？ What effect might such changes have on learning and
motivation？
3。 Suppose that public displays of eating were considered socially inappropriate and that one
could eat only at home with one’s family or alone。 How would the following behaviors be
affected？
。 Typical topics of conversation
。 Popularity of magazines
。 Priorities of morality
In contrast； what would happen if society deemed it appropriate to engage in sex； a basic
biological drive； whenever and wherever one wished？
4。 How can we make a tedious job more enjoyable； satisfying； or rewarding？ Ask students to
apply the principles of learning and motivation to transform their most dreaded task into a
more rewarding one。
5 。 Ask students for personal examples of momentary actualization or peak experiences。
Include times when they felt they found the truth； were filled with energy； or volunteered to
work for a cause。 What was it that motivated them？
SUPPLEMENTAL LECTURE MATERIAL
Motivation in the Marketplace
The goal of advertising is to motivate the consumer to buy products。 There are three basic
ponents to the advertising strategies used to get you to part with your money。 They are：
The Audience
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CHAPTER 12： MOTIVATION
In marketing the audience is called the “target market。” These people are the actual or potential
buyers of the product。 They can be either the decision makers or people who influence the person
who makes the actual buying decision。 For example； parents purchase goods for their children； but
children often have a significant influence on the products their parents buy。 Sometimes
advertising is aimed at trying to change or enlarge the market； such as the makers of a certain
automobile finding that most of their buyers are older。 Because of that finding； the manufacturers
may change their advertising strategy to target a younger population。 The “baby boom” generation
is currently between the ages of about 40 to 50 years old； and provides a very lucrative market
because of its large numbers and relative affluence。
The Message
There are two ponents of any motivational message。 There is the verbal （or written） message
and the nonverbal message。 The nonverbal message is subtler； not directly stated； but nonetheless
implied by the contents of the message。 The nonverbal message may be transmitted by the
background against which the product is displayed； such as the American flag； the shelves of
impressive books； the beautiful home； the spacious office； or the cozy bar。 All of these project a
desirable image。 The nonverbal message can also include clothes； facial expressions； and body
language of the actors or models involved in producing the message。 In the U。S。； this might include
the presence of the “family dog。”
The municator
The municator is the person who delivers the message or who is the central figure in print
advertising。 One characteristic of persuasive municators is their credibility—the reputation of
the individual as believable； as an expert or authority in his or her field。 Attractiveness is another
characteristic that advertisers exploit。 This may mean that the person is admired as an actor；
athlete； or musician； or as a person who has been outstandingly successful in whatever he or she is
known for。 Sometimes the municator is an individual that potential buyers can identify with；
“a person just like me！”
Recognizing these three ponents of advertisements can help us better understand why
individual advertisements are constructed the way that they are and help us be more critical of； and
less susceptible to； their message。 Now let us look at a few specific examples。
Automobiles
The Audience
Every car has its own intended market。 How many 70…year…olds do you see driving Corvettes？ Who
is the market for a Cadillac？ For BMWs？ For pickup trucks？ Car makers are sophisticated in
targeting sexes； ages； and ine groups in their advertisements。
The Message
The verbal message may involve such issues as value； gas mileage； dependability； safety；
performance； and prestige。 The nonverbal messages may be far more potent and persuasive；
exploiting such motives as sex appeal； social status； power； envy； success； and confidence。
Backdrops of polo matches and mansions imply wealth； steelyards and factories imply durability；
and bright lights and tall buildings imply success。 For Americans； especially males； the automobile
is almost an extension of one’s self。 Cars convey an image of ourselves； as we would like others to
perceive us。
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
The municator
Individuals in automobile advertisements are usually very attractive； modeling the sort of person
the buyer would want to be。 Occasionally； the municator is someone expected to know a lot
about cars； such as a famous racecar driver or greasy mechanic。
Beer
The Audience
The audience for beer is middle… and working…class males； “good ol’ boys” who like to get together
to go fishing； watch football games； or play pool。 Females appear in beer mercials； but often
only as props。 Beer is a man’s drink； and women are often targeted with other beverages such as
wine coolers。
The Message
Beer is associated with good times。 Young； attractive； healthy people are often seen running around
beaches； attending terrific parties； and engaging in thrill…seeking sports。 People who drink beer can
also be portrayed as “down to earth” folk； just like you。 These “normal” people are more likely to sit
in the kitchen or the backyard than in a formal setting； and they eat hamburgers and apple pie。 The
motivation for drinking beer is to have good friends and to have good times with them； to reward
yourself at the end of the day with a beer or two while watching ball games。
The municator
Most often； a male without a necktie； or at least a loosened tie； possibly in a flannel work shirt； touts
the beer。 He is a good “All…American” man’s man。 He knows how to hunt and fish； is a skilled
athlete； can fix cars； and is not afraid of an honest day’s work。
You might have your class discuss other products such as pain relievers； colas； and clothes。 Have
your class use their critical thinking skills to figure out the advertiser’s motivation the next time that
they see an advertisem
