心理学与生活-第63章

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they　see　an　advertisement。　They　might　want　to　ask　themselves：　

。　Am　I　a　member　of　the　target　audience？　
。　Is　the　product　really　special　and　different；　or　just　trying　to　be？　
。　What　claims　does　the　advertisement　make　of　the　product？　How　are　the　claims
substantiated？
。　If　statistics　are　used；　are　they　used　fairly？　
。　If　the　product　is　pared　to　another；　is　it　pared　to　a　relevant　product　in　a　reasonable　
way？　
。　What　are　the　nonverbal　messages　that　the　advertisement　tries　to　impart？　
。　How　were　the　municators　chosen　to　maximize　impact　and　believability？　
。　What　need　does　the　product　fill？　Is　the　need　real；　or　created　by　the　advertisement？　
Finally；　advertising　is　not　all　bad。　If　it　was；　it　might　not　be　allowed。　Ask　your　class　why　
advertisements　are　legal；　although　their　only　purpose　is　to　influence　people　to　do　things　that　they　
might　not　do　without　advertisements。　One　positive　aspect　of　advertisements　is　their　informational　
value。　They　alert　consumers　to　the　presence　of　new　products；　and　to　legitimate　differences　among　

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exiting　products。　Are　there　others？　In　closing；　remember　what　the　Romans　said；　“Caveat　emptor！”　
（Let　the　buyer　beware）。　

Psychological　Factors　and　Obesity　

While　genetic　and　metabolic　factors　clearly　influence　many　cases　of　obesity；　personal；　social；　
cultural；　and　environmental　factors　also　play　a　distinct　role。　As　the　text　states；　the　number　of　people　
you　are　with　can　affect　how　much　you　eat。　Also；　we　may　eat　more　in　certain　social　situations　where　
eating　is　expected。　Low　self…esteem；　having　been　sexually　abused；　and　high　levels　of　depressive　
anxiety　are　correlated　with　obesity。　Family　and　cultural　norms　may　also　play　a　part。　Some　cultures　
perceive　what　we　consider　obesity　to　be　attractive。　In　our　culture；　we　idolize　health　and　thinness；　
but　we　have　slipped　into　lifestyles　in　which　so　many　Americans　have　access　to　fat…rich　foods　and　
are　physically　inactive；　that　large　numbers　of　Americans　are　obese　and　dieting　has　bee　the　
norm　for　a　majority　of　American　women。　Many　younger　women　also　develop　eating　disorders　such　
as　bulimia　and　anorexia；　largely　in　response　to　trying　to　achieve　unrealistic　standards　of　thinness。　
This　can　be　a　useful　topic　to　discuss　with　the　class；　because　many　college　students　are　in　the　
highest…risk　group　for　developing　these　disorders。　They　are　also　at　an　age　where　they　are　beginning　
to　develop　lifestyle　norms　that　can　have　long…term　implications　for　their　risk　for　obesity。　

Extrinsic　Rewards　May　Spoil　Pleasure　

The　following　tale　is　useful　as　a　lead…in　to　a　discussion　of　extrinsic　and　intrinsic　rewards：　

An　Italian　shoemaker　in　New　York　became　the　target　of　epithets　shouted　gleefully　by　boys　in　
the　neighborhood。　“Dirty　wop！”　“Greaseball；　go　back　to　Sicily！”　And　other　obscenities　not　fit　
for　print。　The　boys　were　a　general　nuisance　and　disrupted　business。　The　shoemaker　ignored　the　
boys　in　vain。　He　tried　to　reason　with　them；　and　he　tried　to　chase　them　away；　all　to　no　avail。　One　
day　when　he　saw　them　approaching；　the　shoemaker　tried　a　new　approach。　“Don’t　ask　me　
why；”　said　the　shoemaker　to　the　boys；　“but　I　will　give　each　one　of　you　50　cents　if　you　will　shout；　
“Dirty　wop！　No　greaseballs　in　our　neighborhood！”　as　loud　as　you　can。”　The　boys　were　
delighted　and　enthusiastically　shouted　the　phrases　at　the　top　of　their　lungs。　

The　next　day；　right　after　school；　the　boys　reappeared；　expecting　more　of　the　same。　The　
shoemaker　met　them　with　a　smile　and　said；　“You　did　such　a　wonderful　job　yesterday；　I　will　
gladly　pay　50　cents　to　each　of　you　that　shouts　the　same　things　that　you　did　yesterday；　and　
makes　up　one　new　one。”　Again；　the　boys　plied；　screaming　at　the　top　of　their　lungs　until　
they　were　hoarse。　

The　boys　appeared　the　third　day；　and　again　the　shoemaker　met　them　with　a　smile。　
Nevertheless；　today　he　was　apologetic。　“I　am　sorry；”　he　said；　“but　business　has　been　slow。　You　
put　on　a　marvelous　show　yesterday；　but　all　that　I　can　afford　today　is　a　nickel。”　The　boys　obliged　
by　shouting　the　epithets　with　somewhat　less　enthusiasm　than　they　had　the　day　before。　

On　the　fourth　day；　the　boys　appeared　right　on　schedule。　Again；　the　shoemaker　met　them　
apologetically。　“The　show　that　you　put　on　yesterday　was　indeed　worth　it；　but　business　is　so　
bad　that　I　can　not　afford　to　pay　you　today。”　At　this　point；　so　the　story　goes；　the　boys　grumbled　
that　they　had　better　things　to　do　than　entertain　a　dumb　Italian；　and　wandered　off；　never　to　be　
seen　again。　Why　did　this　approach　at　changing　the　boys’　behavior　work　when　none　other　had？　
It　worked　because　it　changed　what　had　been　an　intrinsically　rewarding　activity　into　an　activity　
that　was　done　for　an　extrinsic　monetary　reward。　Then；　when　the　extrinsic　reward　was　removed；　
the　boys　no　longer　had　intrinsic　or　extrinsic　motivation　to　engage　in　the　problem　behavior。　In　
simple　terms；　the　fun　was　taken　out　of　it。　

Psychologist　Mark　Lepper　offers　the　following　conclusions　about　the　research　and　theory　on　the　

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effects　of　reward　on　subsequent　motivation：　

。　Punishment　is　usually　thought　to　create　pliant　behavior　change　without　
internalization　of　the　underlying　attitudes；　values；　morality；　or　principles。　Reward　has　
been　assumed　to　enhance　likelihood　that　the　desired　behavior　change　will　be　internalized。　
。　Festinger’s　dissonance　theory　clearly　distinguishes　between　public　pliance　and　private　
acceptance　in　terms　of　the　person’s　perception　of　the　external　versus　internal　locus　of　
pressure　to　behave　in　the　given　way。　Private　acceptance　（internalized　behavior　change）　
involves　the　actor　believing　he　or　she　had　sufficient　freedom　of　decision　to　refuse　to　do　a　
behavior　and　that　the　decision　was　not　overdetermined　by　threats；　incentives；　or　someone　
else’s　justification。　
。　When　extrinsic　rewards　are　imposed　on　an　activity　that　was　formerly　freely　chosen　because　
of　its　intrinsic　value　to　the　child；　subsequent　motivation　to　engage　in　that　activity　is　
reduced。　This　is　true　for　task…contingent　rewards。　
。　Performance…contingent　rewards　do　not　necessarily　undermine　intrinsic　motivation　as　
task…contingent　rewards　do。　
。　The　greatest　loss　of　intrinsic　motivation　es　when　the　pupil　perceives　his　or　her　task　
behavior　to　be　under　surveillance　and　extrinsically　rewarded。　
Basis　of　Motivation　and　Its　Theoretical　Perspectives　

Motivation　is　defined　as　the　concept　we　use　when　describing　the　forces　acting　on　or　within　an　
organism　to　initiate　and　direct　behavior。　We　also　use　the　concept　to　explain　differences　in　intensity　
of　behavior　and　to　indicate　the　direction　of　behavior。　Increased　intensity　of　behaviors　is　thought　to　
result　from　increased　levels　of　motivation。　For　example；　when　we　are　hungry；　we　direct　our　energies　
to　obtaining　food。　

We　study　motivation　because　both　casual　and　scientific　observation　tell　us　that　behavior　is　often　
triggered　by　something。　Something　motivates　us　to　behave　in　a　certain　way。　Motivation　includes　
certain　characteristics；　such　as　activation；　persistence；　and　vigor：　

Activation　

Although　motivation　is　often　viewed　as　being　behaviorally　activating；　the　resulting　behavior　
activated　may　not　always　be　overt　and　observable。　For　example；　a　rabbit　freezes　when　a　hawk　flies　
overhead。　The　rabbit’s　motivation　for　survival　results　in　an　“activity”　of　immobilization；　although　
the　rabbit’s　heart　rate　is　high　because　of　the　activation　of　its　peripheral　nervous　system。　Therefore；　
motivation　is　not　necessarily　overt；　physically　observable　activation。　It　may　be；　but　it　also　may　not　
be。　

Persistence　

Persistence　appears　to　be　one　of　several　possible　indices　of　motivation。　That　is；　the　level　of　
persistence　appears　to　be　an　indicator　of　the　level　of　motivation。　If　your　cat　is　just　a　little　hungry；　or　
maybe　just　bored；　it　may　follow　you　to　the　kitchen　and　meow　around　its　bowl　in　a　half…hearted　
attempt　to　be　fed。　If　your　cat　is　starving；　however；　it　may　meow　vociferously　while　pacing　back　and　
forth　near　the　kitchen　door。　It　may　try　to　get　your　attention　by　sinking　its　claws　deep　into　your　leg　or　
by　licking　your　face。　If　you　still　refuse　to　feed　it；　your　cat　may　rummage　for　food　on　its　own；　
knocking　jars　over；　opening　cabinets；　and　eating　through　wrappers。　

Vigor　

The　intensity　of　the　response　may　be　associated　with　motivation　level；　but　it　may　also　be　a　learned　
factor。　For　example；　if　a　rat　learned　that　it　had　to　really　bang　on　a　lever　to　get　the　food　pellet　to　fall　

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because　the　lever　had　a　stiff　spring；　the　rat　will　bang　the　stuffing　out　of　any　other　response　level　that　
you　put　in　its　path。　If　you　are　a　casual　observer；　you　might　assume　the　rat　is　highly　motivated　due　to　
the　vigor　with　which　it　bangs　the　lever　when；　in　fact；　that　is　the　only　way　he　knows　how　to　press　a　
lever。　It　is　what　it　has　learned　to　do。　

As　with　most　issues　in　psychology；　there　are　various　approaches　to　studying　motivation；　three　of　
which　are　the　biological；　the　drive　or　learning；　and　the　cognitive。　Let　us　look　at　each　of　them。　

The　Biological　Approach　

The　biological　approach　espouses　naturally　occurring　behavior　and　evolution。　Part　of　this　
perspective　is　instinct　theory。　Instinct　theory；　as　an　explanation　for　motivated　behavior；　reached　its　
peak　in　the　United　States　in　the　late　1800s　and　early　1900s。　As　the　popularity　of　this　theory　grew；　it　
tried　to　“explain”　all　behaviors　as　“instinctive”；　which　led　to　the　nominal　fallacy。　

For　example；　if　you　saw　me　playing　with　a　three…year…old；　you　might　explain　my　playfulness；　my　
behavior；　in　terms　of　a　“paternal　instinct。”　However；　by　labeling　my　behavior　as　“paternal”；　you　
have　done　nothing　but　name　it。　You　have　explained　nothing。　Simply　naming　something　as　an　
instinct　does　not　explain　it。　In　order　to　explain　behavior；　you　cannot　just　label　it；　you　must　
understand　the　conditions　that　led　to　the　behavior　and　the　consequences　that　result　from　it。　
Explanation　presumes　a　cause…and…effect　relationship　and　labeling　a　behavior　provides　no　causal　
explanation。　

Early　instinct　approaches　emphasized　the　continuity　of　human　and　animal　behavior　and　were　
important　because　they　provided　a　foundation　on　which　later　ethological　theories；　motivated　
behavior　theories；　could　build。　Ethological　theories　were　based　on　Darwin’s　theory　of　evolution　and　
were　concerned　with　the　evolution；　development；　and　function　of　behavior。　

Drive　Theories　

The　concept　of　drive　assumed　that　the　motivation　of　behavior　depends　on　a　physiological　need；　
such　as　hunger；　thirst；　or　sex。　This　perspective　posits　that　the　organism　bees　motivated　to　
reduce　the　need　or　drive　in　any　way　that　it　can。　As　a　motivational　construct；　drive　is　usually　
associated　with　maintenance　of　homeostasis；　a　process　in　which　bodily　mechanisms　attempt　to　
keep　the　body’s　systems　functioning　at　their　optimal　levels。　

One　significant　theory　in　this　grouping　was　proposed　by　Clark　Hull　（1943）。　Hull’s　theory　was　
motivated　by　both　learning　theory　and　motivational　thought；　and　his　model　for　behavior　was　one　of　
survival。　Hull　assumed　that　motivation　developed　to　meet　the　organi