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心理学与生活-第66章

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situations; e。g。; love making and fear 
(iii) Many emotions are not distinguishable from others simply by 
their physiological ponents 
(iv) ANS responses are too slow to be the source of emotions 
elicited in a split…second 
c) Cannon…Bard proposed that emotion requires the brain to intercede 
between input of stimulus and output of response 

d) Proposed that emotion…arousing stimuli have simultaneous effects; 
causing both bodily arousal and the subjective experience of emotion 
(via the cortex) 

241 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

5。 Cognitive Appraisal Theories of Emotion 
a) Schachter proposed emotion to be the joint effect of physiological 
arousal and cognitive appraisal; with both necessary for emotion to 
occur 

b) Lazarus maintains that “emotional experience cannot be understood 
solely in terms of what happens in the person or in the brain; but 
grows out of ongoing transactions with the environment that are 
evaluated。” 

c) Challenges to Lazarus…Schachter 

(i) Awareness of physiological arousal is not a necessary 
condition 
(ii) Experiencing strong arousal without obvious cause does not 
lead to a neutral; undifferentiated state 
(iii) Zajonc demonstrates possibility of having preferences 
without inferences; and to feel without knowing why—the 
mere exposure effect 

d) Safest conclusion is that cognitive appraisal is an important; but not 
the only; aspect of emotional experience 

C。 Functions of Emotion 
1。 Motivation and Arousal 
a) Emotions serve a motivational function by arousing the individual to 
take action with regard to an experienced or imagined event 

b) Emotions direct and sustain behaviors toward specific goals 

c) Emotions provide feedback by amplifying or intensifying selected life 
experiences; by signaling that a response is significant or has self…
relevance 

d) Emotions give an awareness of inner conflicts 

e) Yerkes…Dodson law: Performance of difficult tasks decreases; as 
arousal increases; whereas performance of easy tasks increases as 
arousal increases 

(i) Relationship between arousal and performance has a U…
shaped function; predicting that too little or too much arousal 
impairs performance 
(ii) Explores possibility that optimal arousal level produces peak 
performance 
(iii) Key to level of arousal is task difficulty 
2。 Social Functions of Emotion 
a) Emotions serve the function of regulating social interactions 

(i) Stimulation of prosocial behaviors 
(ii) Aid in social munication 
3。 Emotional Effects on Cognitive Functioning 
a) Mood…congruent processing: Material congruent with one’s prevailing 
mood is more likely to be attended to; noticed; and processed at a 
deeper level than noncongruent material 

242 


CHAPTER 13: EMOTION; STRESS; AND HEALTH 

b) Mood…dependent memory refers to recall of a previous emotional event 
that occurs when the individual is in the same mood as during the 
previous event 

II。Stress of Living 
A。 Definitions 
1。 Stress is the pattern of responses an organism makes to stimulus events that 
disturb its equilibrium and tax or exceed its ability to cope 
2。 Stressor refers to a stimulus event that places a demand on an organism for 
some kind of adaptive response 
B。 Physiological Stress Reactions 
1。 Acute stress refers to transient states of arousal; with typically clear onset and 
offset patterns 
2。 Chronic stress refers to a state of enduring arousal; continuing over time; in 
which demands placed on the organism are perceived by the organism as 
being greater than the inner and outer resources available for dealing with 
them 
3。 Emergency Reactions to Acute Threats 
a) Cannon first described the fight…or…flight response; a sequence of 
internal activity that prepare the body to either defend itself or to run 
away when faced with danger 

b) Physiology of the stress response: 

(i) Hypothalamus referred to as the stress center due to its dual 
functions in emergencies: 
(a) Control of autonomic nervous system 
(b) Activation of the pituitary gland 
(ii) ANS regulates activities of organs 
(a) The adrenal medulla to release epinephrine and 
norepinephrine 
(b) The pituitary to secrete thyrotrophic hormone (TTH) 
(stimulating the thyroid) and adrenocorticotrophic 
hormone (ACTH) (stimulating the adrenal cortex) 
4。 The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) and Chronic Stress 
a) Selye described the GAS as including three stages: 

(i) Alarm reaction 
(ii) Stage of resistance 
(iii) Stage of exhaustion 
b) Process is successful at restoration of body’s balance only when 
stressor is short…lived or acute 

c) Chronic stress promises integrity of the immune system 

d) Application of GAS has been valuable in explaining psychosomatic 
disorders 

243 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

C。 Psychological Stress Reactions 
1。 Major Life Events 
a) Major changes in the life situation are the root cause of stress for many 
individuals 

(i) The Social Readjustment Rating scale (SRRS) rates degree of 
adjustment required by life changes; both pleasant and 
unpleasant; is measured in total number of life…change units 
(ii) The life experience survey (LES) measures effects of life events 
in a different manner than the SRRS 
(a) Provides scores for both increases and decreases 
(b) Scores reflect individual appraisals of events 
(iii) Considerations for interpreting measurements of stressful life 
events include: 
(a) Tendency for studies to be retrospective; thus dependent on 
recall 
(b) Prospective studies finding significant correlations 
between development of medical problems and earlier 
accumulation of life stress units 
2。 Catastrophic and Traumatic Events 
a) Catastrophic events are particularly stressful due to uncontrollability; 
unpredictability; and ambiguity 

b) Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) 

(i) Delayed reaction to stress; that occurs repeatedly 
(a) Emotional numbing to daily events 
(b) Feelings of alienation from others 
(c) Emotional pain 
(d) Sleep disorders 
(e) Survivor guilt 
(f) Concentration problems 
(g) Exaggerated startle response 
(ii) Clinical manifestations of PTSD are described as conditioned 
responses; learned in the context of a life…threatening stimulus 
situation 
(iii) Responses can persist; being a chronic syndrome known 
as the residual stress pattern 
3。 Chronic Stressors 
a) Chronic stressors endure over time。 Such as: 

(i) Overpopulation and crime 
(ii) Health crisis such as cancer and AIDS 
(iii) Threat of nuclear war 
b) Some population groups experience chronic stress as a function of 
their SES or racial/ethnic identity 

244 


CHAPTER 13: EMOTION; STRESS; AND HEALTH 

4。 Daily Hassles 
a) Daily hassles are recurring day…to…day stressors that confront most 
people much of the time 

b) Relationship between hassles and health problems indicates that the 
more frequent and intense the hassles; the poorer the health of the 
individual; both physically and mentally 

c) Stressors that occur on a daily basis may have a negative impact on 
cognitive functioning; including memory impairment 

D。 Coping with Stress 
1。 Coping is the process of dealing with internal or external demands that are 
perceived as straining or exceeding an individual’s resources 
2。 Coping may consist of behavioral; emotional; or motivational responses and 
thoughts 
3。 Appraisal of stress 
a) Cognitive appraisal plays a central role in defining the situation; refers 
to the cognitive interpretation and evaluation of a stressor 

b) Lazarus distinguished two phases in cognitive appraisal 

(i) Primary appraisal is used for initial evaluation of the 
seriousness of a demand 
(ii) Secondary appraisal begins the process of deciding that 
something must be done 
c) Stress moderator variables are those variables that change the impact of 
a stressor on a given type of stress reaction 

4。 Types of Coping Responses 
a) Anticipatory coping precedes a potentially stressful event 

b) Two main methods of coping 

(i) Problem…directed coping; attempts to change the stressor or 
one’s relationship to it through direct actions and/or 
problem…solving activities; most often used for controllable 
stressors 
(ii) Emotion…focused coping; changing the self through activities 
that make one feel better; but do not change the stressor; most 
often used for uncontrollable stressors 
5。 Modifying cognitive strategies are adaptive methods of changing one’s 
evaluations of stressors and self…defeating cognitions about addressing them; 
two methods of mentally coping with stress are: 
a) Reappraisal of the nature of the stressors 

b) Restructuring of one’s cognitions about one’s stress reactions 

c) Meichenbaum proposed a three…phase process that allows for stress 
inoculation 

(i) Phase 1: Individuals work to develop greater awareness of 
their actual behavior—what instigates it and what the results 
are 
245 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

(ii) Phase 2: Identification of new behaviors that negate the 
maladaptive; self…defeating behaviors of the past 
(iii) Phase 3: Once engaged in adaptive behaviors; appraisal of 
consequences of new behaviors from a positive perspective 
d) Perceived control is a main theme of coping; the feeling that one has the 
ability to make a difference in the oute of an event or experience 

6。 Social Support as a Coping Resource 
a) Social support refers to the resources others provide; giving the 
message that one is loved; cared for; esteemed; and connected to others 
in a network of munication and mutual obligation 

b) Other forms of support include: 

(i) Tangible support: money; transportation; housing 
(ii) Informational support: advice; personal feedback; and 
information 
c) Positive effects of social support can improve recovery from diagnosed 
illness and reduce risk of death from disease 

III。 Health Psychology 
A。 Definitions 
1。 Health psychology is the branch of psychology devoted to understanding the 
way people stay healthy; the reasons they bee ill; and the way they 
respond when they do bee ill。 
2。 Health refers to the general condition of the body and mind in terms of 
soundness and vigor。 
B。 The Biopsychosocial Model of Health 
1。 Traditional health practices employ practices that enhance the quality of life 
a) Hozho; a Navajo concept; sees illness as the oute of disharmony; 
with traditional healing ceremonies that seek to banish illness and 
restore health through efforts of the shaman and the bined efforts 
of the family members; working with the ill person to reachieve a state 
of harmony 

b) Among the Nyukusa peoples of Africa; any sign of disharmony or 
deviation from expected norms generates swift munal intervention 
to rectify the situation 

c) Western view of medicine typically involves solely a biological or 
pharmacological intervention 

2。 Toward a Biopsychosocial Model 
a) In contrast to non…Western cultures; which often assumed a link 
between body and mind; the traditional Western biomedical model is 
dualistic; medically treating the body separately from the psyche 

b) The biopsychosocial model links physical heal

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