心理学与生活-第68章

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provide　“emotional　quality”　to　experiences　could　be　eliminated　without　disturbing　the　emotions。　
He　proceeded　to　denervate　cats　so　that　no　bodily　change　could　occur。　The　cats　still　displayed　
“normal”　emotion　（fear）　in　the　presence　of　a　barking　dog。　
2。　Cannon　noted　that　bodily　changes　that　occur　during　varied　emotional　states　are　nearly　the　same；　
regardless　of　the　emotion　felt。　For　example；　in　both　fear　and　anger；　heart　rate　and　blood　pressure　
increase；　eyes　dilate；　and　hair　stands　erect。　Similar　changes　are　observed　in　response　to　extreme　
heat　or　cold。　
3。　Cannon　felt　that　changes　occurring　in　the　body；　changes　in　the　autonomic　nervous　system；　were　too　
slow　to　provide　the　experience　of　emotion。　
4。　Cannon　felt　that　if　the　James–Lange　theory　were　correct；　then　exercise；　which　increases　heart　rate　
and　leads　to　other　bodily　changes；　should　produce　an　emotional　response。　
Cannon　believed　emotion　to　be　associated　with　activation　of　the　sympathetic　nervous　system；　which；　among　
other　functions；　prepares　an　organism　for　fight　or　flight　by　increasing　heart　rate；　blood　pressure；　and　other　
bodily　functions。　Cannon　argued　that　control　of　emotion　was　based　in　the　thalamus；　which　receives　
information　from　various　senses　and　that　emotional　response　patterns　were　activated　by　the　thalamus　
when　external　sensory　information　was　received；　via　activation　of　the　sympathetic　nervous　system。　He　felt　

emotion　occurred　at　the　same　time　as　activation　of　the　body。　His　model　looks　like　this：

　PERCEPTION　T　BODILY　CHANGES　&　EMOTION　T　BEHAVIOR　

As　an　example　of　how　this　might　look　in　real　life；　imagine　meeting　an　angry　bear　in　the　woods：

　SNARLING　BEAR　T　INCREASE　HEART　RATE　&　FEAR　T　FIGHT　OR　FLIGHT！　

The　Schachter—Singer　Theory　

The　Cognitive–Physiological　Theory　of　Emotion；　proposed　by　Schachter　and　Singer；　suggests　that　emotional　
experience　involves　both　cognitive　attributions　and　physiological　arousal。　This　theory　assumes　that　both　

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CHAPTER　13：　EMOTION；　STRESS；　AND　HEALTH　

physiological　arousal　and　a　cognitive　label　are　necessary　for　the　full　experience　of　emotion。　If　either　
ponent　is　missing；　the　subjective　state　experienced　would　be　inplete。　In　some　ways；　this　model　
bines　and　modifies　the　James–Lange　and　Cannon–Bard　theories。　Like　James　and　Lange；　this　theory　
proposed　that　bodily　changes　are　a　part　of　the　emotional　experience；　and；　like　Cannon　and　Bard；　it　posits　
that　interpretation　of　the　event　is　important　for　full　experience。　However；　this　model　goes　beyond　previous　
theories　in　the　position　that　both　physiological　and　cognitive　labeling　are　required　for　the　full　experience　of　
emotion。　This　theory　has　been　quite　popular　since　its　introduction　in　1963。　Support　for　the　theory；　however；　
has　been　modest；　it　has　been　criticized　on　both　methodological　and　empirical　grounds。　Attempts　to　replicate　
Schachter’s　work　have　been　unsuccessful。　In　diagram　form；　this　theory　would　look　like　this：　

PERCEPTION　T　BODILY　CHANGES　&　T　EMOTION　T　BEHAVIOR　
COGNITIVE　LABEL　

As　an　example　of　how　this　might　look　in　real　life；　imagine　meeting　an　angry　bear　in　the　woods：　

SNARLING　BEAR　T　INCREASED　HEART　RATE；　T　FEAR！　T　FIGHT　OR　FLIGHT！　
ETC。　&　COGNITIVE　APPRAISAL　

Since　this　model　first　appeared；　some　psychologists　have　suggested　that　the　cognitive　ponent　alone　may　
be　both　a　necessary　and　sufficient　ponent　for　the　generation　of　emotion。　

The　Survival　Value　of　Emotions　

Plutchik；　a　psychologist　who　has　done　a　great　deal　of　research　on　emotion；　says；　“The　organic　tradition　
reminds　people　of　their　biological　connection　to　each　other；　and　the　survival　value　of　emotions　such　as　guilt；　
shame；　pity；　remorse；　gratitude；　and　empathy。”　One　could　claim　the　emotions　have　survival　value　because　
they　have　survived　in　the　evolutionary　process。　However；　social；　political；　and　economic　changes　among　
humans　occur　much　more　rapidly　than　evolutionary　changes；　and　characteristics　that　were　once　adaptive　
may　cease　to　be　adaptive　as　the　environment　changes。　

The　emotions　that　Plutchik　mentions　are　related　to　altruism　and　cooperation。　An　individual　with　these　
emotions　may　be　at　a　disadvantage　in　petition　with　an　individual　who　does　not　have　these　emotions　
and　is　selfish　and　without　conscience；　as　ordinary　people　are　often　the　victims　of　people　with　antisocial　
personalities。　However；　if　all　the　members　of　a　group　or　species　were　lacking　in　altruistic　emotions；　they　
would　find　it　difficult　to　form　a　cooperative　society　and　might　destroy　each　other。　

Stress：　Causes　and　Coping　

Stress　refers　to　the　reaction　of　an　individual　to　disturbing　events　in　their　environment。　Our　reaction　to　stress　
is　fundamentally　physiological；　with　any　or　all　of　the　following　manifestations：　

·　A　heightened　state　of　awareness　
·　A　dry　mouth　
·　Increased　heart　rate　
·　Shaky　hands　
·　Increased　perspiration　
One　thing　that　makes　stress　difficult　to　define；　explain；　diagnose；　and　treat　is　that　stress　is　a　subjective　state。　
What　stresses　you　may　not　stress　other　people。　Negative　or　unpleasant　events　are　more　likely　to　be　
perceived　as　stressful　than　positive　events；　although　positive　events　such　as　childbirth　can　also　be　stressful。　
Negative　events　cause　more　psychological　distress　and　produce　more　physiological　symptoms　than　do　
positive　events。　Uncontrollable　or　unpredictable　events　are　more　stressful　than　those　that　are　controllable　or　
predictable。　Unpredictable　events　may　be　more　stressful；　because　there　is　no　opportunity　to　prepare　for　
coping　with　them。　Ambiguous　events　are　more　stressful　than　are　clear…cut　events；　whether　the　events　are　
good　or　bad。　Ambiguous　events　can　leave　you　stuck　in　a　problem…solving　stage　in　which　you　attempt　to　
understand　what　caused　the　event　and　its　meaning。　

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PSYCHOLOGY　AND　LIFE　

Stress　is　a　potential　causal　factor　in　illness；　in　that　it　can　open　the　door　for　both　physical　and　psychological　
problems。　Some　of　the　earlier　work　in　this　area　looked　at　the　role　played　in　illness　by　Major　Stressful　Life　
Events　（MSLE）。　This　research　showed　the　impact　of　MSLEs　using　a　questionnaire　entitled　the　Social　
Readjustment　Rating　Scale　（SRRS）。　Each　item　on　the　scale　has　been　given　a　certain　number　of　points；　with　
higher　numbers　corresponding　to　more　stressful　events。　Once　a　respondent　has　pleted　the　scale；　the　
points　for　each　item　are　totaled。　The　higher　the　score　on　the　scale；　the　higher　the　stress　level。　

In　addition　to　large　stressful　events；　psychologists　have　recently　e　to　believe　that　daily　hassles　may　have　
a　larger　detrimental　impact　on　us　than　previously　thought。　Research　suggests　that　these　chronic　stressors　
are　more　predictive　of　physical　and　psychological　illness　than　are　the　more　acute　stressors　found　on　the　
SRRS。　

COPING　WITH　STRESSFUL　EVENTS　

According　to　Lazarus；　coping　is　the　process　of　attempting　to　manage　demands　that　are　viewed　as　taxing　or　
exceeding　one’s　resources。　It　is　the　process　of　trying　to　manage　and　master　stressful　events。　Researchers　
distinguish　between　two　types　of　coping　that　can　occur　simultaneously：　

。　Problem…Solving　Efforts；　which　are　attempts　to　do　something　constructive　to　change　the　stressful　
circumstances　
。　Emotion…Focused　coping；　which　involves　efforts　to　regulate　the　emotional　reactions　to　stressful　events。　
What　constitutes　successful　coping？　Researchers　in　this　area　differ　in　the　criteria　by　which　they　measure　
successful　coping。　However；　we　can　say　that　coping　efforts　are　deemed　successful　if　they：　

。　Reduce　physiological　arousal　and　its　indicators　such　as　heart　rate　
。　Permit　a　quick　return　to　previous　life　patterns　
。　Reduce　psychological　distress；　such　as　anxiety　and　depression　
COPING　STYLES　

Coping　style　is　an　internal　coping　resource；　consisting　of　a　general　tendency　for　a　person　to　deal　with　a　
stressful　event　in　a　particular　way。　Examples　of　coping　styles　include：　

Avoidance　versus　Confrontation　

Some　people　meet　events　head…on；　tackling　problems　directly。　Others　attempt　to　minimize　the　
significance　or　withdraw　from　such　events；　often　through　alcohol　and　drugs。　Avoiders　may　not　be　able　
to　deal　with　the　possibility　of　future　threats　and　may　fail　in　their　attempts　at　making　efforts　to　anticipate　
and　manage　subsequent　problems。　On　the　other　hand；　confronters　may　deal　effectively　with　long…term　
threats；　although　in　the　short…run　they　may　be　more　anxious　as　they　deal　directly　with　the　stressor。　

Type　A　Behavior　

There　are　coping　styles　that　successfully　deal　with　stress；　but　that　also　have　an　adverse　impact　on　
health。　One　of　them；　Type　A　Behavior；　has　been　associated　with　heart　disease　for　several　years。　The　
Type　A　individual　was　first　identified　in　1978　and　is　characterized　by　aggression；　petition；　
achievement；　time　urgency；　and　hostility。　Type　A　individuals　lead　fast…track　lives。　Many　of　your　
students　are　probably　junior　Type　A’s。　They　work　long　hours；　are　impatient　with　what　they　perceive　as　
slow　behavior　in　others；　and　often　finish　other　people’s　sentences　for　them。　The　Type　A　behavior　
syndrome　is　important　because　it　has　been　reliably　related　to　the　development　of　coronary　artery　
disease；　as　a　function　of　excessive　physiological　arousal　in　response　to　stressful　events。　Recently；　
researchers　have　identified　the　hostility　ponent　of　Type　A　behavior　as　more　damaging　than　time　
urgency　or　petitiveness　to　the　circulatory　system。　

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CHAPTER　13：　EMOTION；　STRESS；　AND　HEALTH　

SOCIAL　SUPPORT　FOR　STRESS　

Socially　supportive　relationships　may　mitigate　the　effects　of　stress　by　helping　people　cope　with　and　resolve　
problems。　Social　relationships　promote　health。　Social　support　is　an　interpersonal　exchange　in　which　one　
person　gives　help　to　another。　It　may　be　provided　in　numerous　ways；　including：　

。　Emotional　concern；　as　expressed　through　liking；　love；　sympathy；　and　empathy　
。　Instrumental　aid　through　the　provision　of　goods　or　services　during　someone’s　time　of　need　
。　Providing　information　about　a　stressful　situation；　perhaps　a　similar　one　experienced　by　them　
。　Reassurance　by　others　that　you　are　acting　in　a　reasonable；　responsible　manner　
We　have　a　great　deal　of　data　to　indicate　that　social　support　during　times　of　stress　can　effectively　reduce　
psychological　distress。　People　who　had　families　who　stayed　in　the　Middle　East　with　them　during　the　Gulf　
War　did　much　better　psychologically　than　those　who　had　no　family　there　and　those　whose　families　
returned　to　their　native　country。　Social　support　also　seems　both　to　decrease　the　likelihood　of　physical　illness　
and　to　speed　recovery。　Research　has　been　attempting　to　identify　precisely　how　social　support　mitigates　
stress　and　has　arrived　at　two　hypotheses：　

。　The　Direct　Effects　Hypothesis　suggests　that　social　support　is　always　beneficial；　during　both　stressful　
and　nonstressful　times。　
。　The　Buffering　Hypothesis　suggests　that　the　physical　and　mental　health　benefits　of　social　support　occur　
mainly　during　periods　of　high　stress　and　not　during　periods　of　low　stress。　
Extensive　research　suggests　that　both　hypotheses　are　at　least　partially　correct。　

STRESS　MANAGEMENT　

Some　of　us　have　a　tough　time　managing　and　coping　with　stress　on　our　own。　In　such　cases；