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心理学与生活-第70章

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psychological factors affect the oute of in…vitro fertilization; the psychology of biofeedback; the 
sources and consequences of stress; behavioral modification and AIDS; and the General Adaptation 
Syndrome。 

Demonstrations 

Philip Zimbardo demonstrates the process of biofeedback by consciously lowering his pulse rate 
through relaxation and concentration。 

The three stages of Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome theory。 

Anti…drinking Public Service Announcement。 

Interviews 

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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

Judith Rodin explains how an increased sense of control and empowerment can have positive effects on 
the physiology of the aged。 Rodin also discusses how the stress of in…vitro fertilization procedure may 
account for its 80% failure rate。 

Neal Miller discusses how individuals can change the functioning of their own internal organs 
through biofeedback。 

Thomas Coates discusses how the bination of medical and psychological research can improve the 
understanding of the AIDS virus。 

Canadian physician Hans Selye studies how stress can affect physical functioning。 

FILMS AND VIDEOS 

City Spaces; Human Places (1985)。 PBS (WBGH); 58 minutes 

If you are planning a lecture on environmental psychology; this videotape provides a humorous view of the 
urban environment and how people make use of a city。 A NOVA presentation。 

Health; Stress; and Coping (1990)。 Insight Media; 30 minutes 

Explores a variety of stressors including daily stress; loss of a love relationship; and posttraumatic stress 
disorder。 Includes information on Norman Cousins and the work of Hans Selye。 

Learning to Live with Stress: Programming the Body for Health (1976)。 DOCA; 20 minutes 

Doctors Hans Selye and Herbert Benson discuss the study of stress and its effects on the human brain and 
body。 Describes how stress contributes to psychosomatic illnesses; such as heart problems; hypertension; 
high blood pressure; and ulcers。 

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CHAPTER 13: EMOTION; STRESS; AND HEALTH 


CHAPTER14 
Understanding Human Personality 

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 

On pletion of this chapter; students should be able to: 

1。 Describe the constructs of personality and self 
2。 Identify the various sources of data on personality 
3。 Differentiate between type and trait theories of personality 
4。 Define traits; as operationalized by Allport 
5。 Explain the five…factor model of personality 
6。 Understand the significance of the consistency paradox 
7。 Describe the major theories of personality and identify important differences between them 
8。 Explain the criticism of each theory of personality 
9。 Explain the significance of the reciprocal relationship between self…esteem and self…
presentation 
CHAPTER OUTLINE 

I。 Definitions 
A。 Personality is the plex set of unique psychological qualities that influence an 
individual’s characteristic patterns of behavior; across different situations and over time。 
B。 Core aspect of the self is the subjective; private aspect of personality that gives coherence 
and order to behavior。 
II。Type and Trait Personality Theories 
A。 Categorizing by Types。 Some personality theories group people into distinct 
nonoverlapping categories that are called personality types 
1。 One early type theory proposed by Hippocrates; positing humors 
associated with particular temperaments 
a) Blood: Sanguine temperament; cheerful and active 
b) Phlegm: Phlegmatic temperament; apathetic and sluggish 
c) Black bile: Melancholy temperament; sad and brooding 
d) Yellow bile: Choleric temperament; irritable and excitable 

2。 Sheldon related physique to temperament; assigning people to one of 
three categories; based on body build 
a) Endomorphic: Fat; soft; round 
b) Mesomorphic: Muscular; rectangular; strong 

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CHAPTER 14: UNDERSTANDING HUMAN PERSONALITY 

c) Ectomorphic: Thin; long; fragile 

3。 Sulloway proposed a theory of personality based on birth order 
a) Each child fills a niche within the family 

b) Firstborn children fill the most convenient niche; they identify 
with their parents 

c) Laterborn children must find different niches; and; thus; are 
usually more open to experience and deviance 

B。 Describing with Traits 
1。 Traits are enduring qualities or attributes that predispose individuals 
to behave consistently across situations 
2。 Allport’s trait approach 
a) Allport posited that each individual has a unique 
bination of traits; the building blocks of personality。 Three 
kinds of traits have been identified: 

(i) Cardinal traits are those around which the individual 
organizes his or her life 
(ii) Central traits represent major characteristics of the 
individual 
(iii) Secondary traits are specific; personal features that 
help predict the individual’s behavior; but are less 
useful for understanding personality 
b) Allport’s interest was in discovery of the unique binations 
of these traits that made each individual a singular entity。 He 
viewed personality structures rather than environmental 
conditions to be the critical determinants of individual 
behavior 

3。 Identifying Universal Trait Dimensions 
a) Cattell proposed that 16 factors provide the underlying source 
of the surface behaviors that we think of as personality 

b) Eysenck derived three broad personality dimensions: 

(i) Extroversion: internal vs。 external orientation 
(ii) Neuroticism: emotionally stable vs。 emotionally 
unstable 
(iii) Psychoticism: kind and considerate vs。 aggressive and 
antisocial 
c) Eysenck proposed that personality differences on these 
dimensions were caused by genetic and biological differences 

4。 Five…Factor Model: Recent research indicates that five factors overlap 
Eysenck’s original three; best characterize personality structure 
a) The five…factor model (the Big Five) brings categories having a 
mon theme together in the following dimensions: 

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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

(i) Extroversion: Talkative; energetic; and assertive vs。 
quiet; reserved; and shy 
(ii) Agreeableness: Sympathetic; kind; and affectionate vs。 
cold; quarrelsome; and cruel 
(iii) Conscientiousness: Organized; responsible; and 
cautious vs。 careless; frivolous; and irresponsible 
(iv) Neuroticism (emotional stability): Stable; calm; and 
contented vs。 anxious; unstable; and temperamental 
(v) Openness to experience: Creative; intellectual; and open 
minded vs。 simple; shallow; and unintelligent 
b) Factors are not intended as replacement for specific trait 
terms; rather they outline a taxonomy that better describes 
individuals in capturing the dimensions on which they differ 

C。 Traits and Heritability 
1。 Behavioral genetics: The study of the degree to which personality traits 
and behavior patterns are inherited 
2。 Heritability studies show that almost all personality traits are 
influenced by genetic factors 
D。 Do Traits Predict Behaviors? 
1。 The consistency paradox refers to the observation that personality 
ratings across time and different observers are consistent; while 
behavior ratings of a person across situations are not consistent 
2。 Paradox refers to levels of analysis; the use of specific vs。 summary 
types of data; rather than to actual consistency 
3。 Different situations are more or less likely to “allow” expression of 
traits; with those situations most likely to influence behavior occurring 
when: 
a) Situations are novel 

b) Situations are ill…defined; offering multiple alternatives but 
without guidelines on propriety 

c) Situations are stressful or challenging 

4。 Forced definition of traits in a more precise manner resulted in the 
observation that personality is not about behavioral consistency; 
rather it is a matter of patterns of behavioral coherence 
E。 Evaluation of Type and Trait Theories 
1。 Criticism based on fact that these theories do not generally explain 
how behavior is generated; or how personality develops; they only 
identify and describe characteristics correlated with behavior 
2。 Trait theories typically portray a static (or at least stabilized) view of 
personality structure; as it currently exists 
III。 Psychodynamic Theories 
A。 mon to all psychodynamic personality theories is the assumption that powerful inner 
forces shape personality and motivate behavior 
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CHAPTER 14: UNDERSTANDING HUMAN PERSONALITY 

B。 Freudian Psychoanalysis 
1。 Freud’s theory attempts to explain: 
a) Origins and course of personality development 

b) Nature of mind 

c) Aspects of abnormal personality 

d) Ways personality can be changed by therapy 

2。 Presumes the core of personality to be the events within a person’s 
mind (intrapsychic events) that motivate behavior 
3。 Freud presumed all behavior was motivated; that so…called chance or 
accidents did not cause behavior; but were determined by motives 
4。 Drives and Psychosexual Development 
a) Postulating a mon biological basis for behavioral patterns 
observed in his patients; Freud ascribed motivational source 
to psychic energy within each individual 

b) Individuals presumed to have inborn instincts or drives that 
were tension systems 

c) Freud originally postulated two basic drives: 

(i) Self…preservation; associated with the ego 
(ii) Eros is related to sexual urges and preservation of the 
species; and is used with the term libido to identify 
source of energy for sexual urges 
d) After World War I; Freud added Thanatos; the concept of the 
death instinct 

e) Eros operates from birth; and is evident in infants’ pleasure in 
stimulation of erogenous zones; leading Freud to posit that 
the physical source of sexual pleasures changed in an orderly 
progression (i。e。; five stages of psychosexual development) 

5。 Psychic determinism: Assumption that all mental and behavioral 
reactions are determined by earlier experiences; leading to belief in 
unconscious processes 

a) Freud believed behavior has both manifest and latent content 

(i) Manifest content of behavior refers to what one says; 
does; and perceives (indicating awareness) 
(ii) Latent content includes neurotic symptoms; dreams; 
slips of the pens and slips of the tongue at the 
unconscious level of and information…processing 
6。 The Structure of Personality 
a) Id: Storehouse of fundamental drives; operating irrationally 
and on impulse; pushing for expression and immediate 
gratification; governed by the pleasure principle 

b) Superego: Storehouse of individual’s values; including moral 
values; corresponds roughly to the notion of conscience 

(i) The inner voice of “oughts” and “should nots” 
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

(ii) Includes ego ideal; the individual’s view of the kind 
of person he/she should strive to bee 
(iii) Often in conflict with the id 
c) Ego: Reality…based aspect of the self; arbitrating conflict 
between id’s impulses and superego’s demands and choosing 
actions that gratify id without undesirable consequences 

(i) Governed by the reality principle 
(ii) When id and superego conflict; ego arranges a 
promise both can live with 
7。 Repression and Ego Defense 
a) Repression is the psychologica

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