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心理学与生活-第71章

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(ii) When id and superego conflict; ego arranges a 
promise both can live with 
7。 Repression and Ego Defense 
a) Repression is the psychological process that protects the 
individual from experiencing extreme anxiety or guilt about 
impulses; ideas; or memories that are unacceptable and / or 
dangerous to express。 Ego’s most basic defense against being 
overwhelmed by id and superego 

b) Ego defense mechanisms are mental strategies used by the ego to 
defend itself in the daily conflict between id impulses that 
seek expression; and the superego’s demand to deny them 

c) Anxiety is an intense emotional response; triggered when 
repressed conflict is about to emerge into consciousness。 
Signals that repression is not working; and a second line…ofdefense 
to relieve anxiety is required 

C。 Evaluation of Freudian Theory 
1。 Bases for criticism 
a) Conceptually vague and not operationally defined; making 
scientific evaluation of the theory difficult 

b) Freudian psychoanalytic theory is “good history; but bad 
science” 

(i) Unreliable predictive power 
(ii) Is applied retrospectively 
(iii) Typically involves historical reconstruction; rather 
than scientific construction of probable actions and 
predictable outes 
(iv) Directs focus away from current stimuli that may be 
inducing and maintaining the behavior 
c) Psychoanalytic theory is a developmental theory; but never 
included studies of children 

d) Minimizes traumatic experiences by reinterpreting memories 
of them as fantasies 

e) Male…as…norm model makes theory androcentric 

2。 Modifications and improvements 
a) Ongoing research reveals much of daily experience is shaped 
by processes outside of awareness 

b) Freud’s theory is the most plex; pelling; and 

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prehensive view of both normal and abnormal 
personality functioning; even when its predictions are wrong 

3。 Like any theory; Freud’s theory must be treated as unconfirmed until it 
can be confirmed; element by element 
D。 Post…Freudian Theories 
1。 Intellectual descendants of Freud made several changes in the 
psychoanalytic view of personality 
a) More emphasis on ego functions 
b) Social variables viewed as playing a more significant role in 
shaping of personality 
c) Less emphasis on importance of libidinal energy 
d) Extension of personality development beyond childhood; 
including the entire life span 

2。 Alfred Adler 
a) Alfred Adler rejected the significance of Eros and the pleasure 
principle 

b) Adler believed personality structured around striving to 
overe feelings of inferiority 

3。 Karen Horney 
a) Challenged Freud’s phallo…centric emphasis 
b) Placed greater emphasis on cultural factors 
c) Focused on present character structure rather than on 
infantile sexuality 

4。 Carl Jung expanded the conception of the unconscious to include the: 
a) Collective unconscious: the fundamental psychological truths 
shared by the entire human race 

b) Archetype: a primitive; symbolic representation of a particular 
experience or object; associated with the instinctive tendency 
to feel; think about; or experience the object in a special way。 

(i) Animus; the male archetype 
(ii) Anima; the female archetype 
(iii) Mandala; the archetype of the self 
c) Jung’s view of personality as a constellation of pensating 
internal forces; in dynamic balance; resulted in analytic 
psychology 

IV。 Humanistic Theories 
A。 Humanistic approaches to personality are characterized by concern for integrity of the 
individual’s personal and conscious experience and growth potential 
B。 Features of Humanistic Theories Include: 
1。 Some humanists believed motivation for behavior derived from the 
individual’s unique tendencies; both innate and learned; to develop 
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and change in a positive direction 

2。 Self…actualization; a constant striving to realize one’s inherent potential; 
to develop one’s own capacities and talents 
a) Drive for self…actualization sometimes conflicts with need for 
approval from the self and others; especially when the 
individual feels certain obligations or conditions must be met 
to gain approval; as in: 

b) Rogers’ mandate of unconditional positive regard in child…
rearing 

c) Horney’s idea that people have a “real self” that requires 
favorable environment to be actualized 

3。 Humanistic theories have also been described as holistic; 
dispositional; phenomenological; and existential 
a) Holistic: explain individuals’ separate acts in terms of their 
entire personalities 

b) Dispositional: focus on innate qualities within the individual 
that exert a major influence over the direction behavior will 
take 

c) Phenomenological: emphasize the individual’s frame of 
reference and subjective view of reality; rather than the frame 
of an observer or a therapist 

d) Existentialist: focus on higher mental processes 

C。 Evaluation of Humanistic Theories 
1。 Criticisms 
a) Concepts are fuzzy; and difficult to explore empirically 

b) Traditionally; did not focus on particular characteristics of the 
individual 

c) Theories were more about human nature and qualities shared 
by all people; than about individual personality or the basis of 
difference among individuals 

d) Emphasis of the role of the self as source of experience and 
action neglects environmental variables that also influence 
behavior 

2。 Contemporary research emphasizes psychobiography; “the systematic 
use of psychological theory to transform a life into a coherent and 
illuminating story” 
V。Social…Learning and Cognitive Theories 
A。 Introduction 
1。 Learning theory orientation looks to environmental circumstances that 
control behavior 
2。 Personality is viewed as the sum of overt and covert responses that are 
reliably elicited by the individual’s reinforcement history 
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3。 Learning by social imitation is by observation of others’ behavior; 
without actual performance of the response 
4。 Contemporary theories emphasize importance of both cognitive and 
behavioral processes 
B。 Mischel’s Cognitive…Affective Personality Theory 
1。 Posits that response to a specific environmental input depends on a 
person’s: 
a) Encoding strategies; the way ining information is 
processed: 

(i) Selective attending 
(ii) Categorization 
(iii) Making associations 
b) Expectancies and beliefs: anticipation of likely outes for 
given actions in particular situations 

c) Affects: your feelings and emotions; including physiological 
responses 

d) Goals and values: outes and affective states valued by the 
individual 

e) petencies and self…regulatory plans; rules developed by the 
individual for guiding performance; setting goals; and 
evaluating effectiveness 

2。 Nature of variables for a given individual result from history of 
observations and interactions with others and with inanimate aspects 
of the physical environment 
3。 Beliefs about others’ personalities es from tracking the way 
different situations bring out different behaviors 
C。 Bandura’s Cognitive Social…Learning Theory 
1。 bines principles of learning with an emphasis on human 
interactions in social settings 
2。 Stresses the cognitive processes involved in acquiring and 
maintaining patterns of behavior and; thus; personality 
3。 Critical constructs 
a) Reciprocal determinism: the examining of all ponents if one 
wishes to understand human behavior; personality; and 
social ecology pletely 

b) Observational learning: the process by which the individual 
changes his or her behavior; based on observations of another 
individual’s behavior 

c) Self…efficacy: the belief that one can perform adequately in a 
particular situation。 Self…efficacy judgments include: 

(i) Vicarious experience 
(ii) Persuasion 
(iii) Monitoring of emotional arousal when thinking 
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about a task 

4。 Self…efficacy acknowledges the importance of the environment; 
including perceptions of supportiveness or unsupportiveness of that 
environment 
D。 Cantor’s Social Intelligence Theory 
1。 Social intelligence refers to the expertise the individual brings to his or 
her experience of life tasks 
2。 Three types of individual differences are defined: 
a) Choice of life goals 
b) Knowledge relevant to social interactions 
c) Strategies for implementing goals 
3。 Social intelligence offers a new perspective on how personality 
predicts consistency 
E。 Evaluation of Social…Learning and Cognitive Theories 
1。 One set of criticisms points out that theories generally overlook 
emotion as an important ponent of personality 
a) Emphasize rational; information…processing variables 

b) Emotions are perceived as by…products of thoughts and 
behavior; instead of being assigned specific; independent 
importance 

c) Theories do not fully recognize the impact of unconscious 
motivation on both behavior and affect 

2。 A second set of criticisms focuses on vague explanations relative to 
creation of personal constructs and petencies 
a) Cognitive theories focus on the individual’s perception of 
current behavior setting serves to obscure the individual’s 
history 

b) Kelly’s theory is more a conceptual system than a theory; as it 
focuses on structure and processes; saying little about content 
of personal constructs 

VI。 Self Theories 
A。 William James was the earliest advocate of theories addressing how each individual 
manages his or her sense of self。 James identified three ponents of the self…experience: 
1。 Material me: the bodily self; along with surrounding physical objects 
2。 Social me: the individual’s awareness of how others view him or her 
3。 Spiritual me: the self that monitors private thoughts and feelings 
B。 Dynamic Aspects of Self…Concepts 
1。 Self…concept is a dynamic mental structure that motivates; interprets; 
organizes; mediates; and regulates intrapersonal and interpersonal 
behaviors and processes 
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2。 ponents of self…concept include 
a) Memories about one’s self 
b) Beliefs about one’s traits; motives; values; and abilities 
c) Ideal self: the self that one would most like to bee 
d) Possible selves that one contemplates enacting 
e) Positive or negative evaluations of one’s self (self…esteem) 
f) Beliefs about what others think of one’s self 
3。 Self…concept includes schemas about the self; self…schemas; that allow 
one to organize information about one’s self and influence the way 
one processes information about others 
4。 Possible selves are “the ideal selves that we would very much like to 
bee;” and are also “the selves we could bee and the selves we 
are afraid of being” 
C。 Self…Esteem and Self…Presentation 
1。 Self…esteem is a generalized evaluation of the self; influencing thoughts; 
moods; and behavior 
a) Low self…esteem may be characterized (in part) by less 
certainty about the self and may include the feeling that one 
does not know much about one’s self 

b) D

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