心理学与生活-第71章
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(ii) When id and superego conflict; ego arranges a
promise both can live with
7。 Repression and Ego Defense
a) Repression is the psychological process that protects the
individual from experiencing extreme anxiety or guilt about
impulses; ideas; or memories that are unacceptable and / or
dangerous to express。 Ego’s most basic defense against being
overwhelmed by id and superego
b) Ego defense mechanisms are mental strategies used by the ego to
defend itself in the daily conflict between id impulses that
seek expression; and the superego’s demand to deny them
c) Anxiety is an intense emotional response; triggered when
repressed conflict is about to emerge into consciousness。
Signals that repression is not working; and a second line…ofdefense
to relieve anxiety is required
C。 Evaluation of Freudian Theory
1。 Bases for criticism
a) Conceptually vague and not operationally defined; making
scientific evaluation of the theory difficult
b) Freudian psychoanalytic theory is “good history; but bad
science”
(i) Unreliable predictive power
(ii) Is applied retrospectively
(iii) Typically involves historical reconstruction; rather
than scientific construction of probable actions and
predictable outes
(iv) Directs focus away from current stimuli that may be
inducing and maintaining the behavior
c) Psychoanalytic theory is a developmental theory; but never
included studies of children
d) Minimizes traumatic experiences by reinterpreting memories
of them as fantasies
e) Male…as…norm model makes theory androcentric
2。 Modifications and improvements
a) Ongoing research reveals much of daily experience is shaped
by processes outside of awareness
b) Freud’s theory is the most plex; pelling; and
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prehensive view of both normal and abnormal
personality functioning; even when its predictions are wrong
3。 Like any theory; Freud’s theory must be treated as unconfirmed until it
can be confirmed; element by element
D。 Post…Freudian Theories
1。 Intellectual descendants of Freud made several changes in the
psychoanalytic view of personality
a) More emphasis on ego functions
b) Social variables viewed as playing a more significant role in
shaping of personality
c) Less emphasis on importance of libidinal energy
d) Extension of personality development beyond childhood;
including the entire life span
2。 Alfred Adler
a) Alfred Adler rejected the significance of Eros and the pleasure
principle
b) Adler believed personality structured around striving to
overe feelings of inferiority
3。 Karen Horney
a) Challenged Freud’s phallo…centric emphasis
b) Placed greater emphasis on cultural factors
c) Focused on present character structure rather than on
infantile sexuality
4。 Carl Jung expanded the conception of the unconscious to include the:
a) Collective unconscious: the fundamental psychological truths
shared by the entire human race
b) Archetype: a primitive; symbolic representation of a particular
experience or object; associated with the instinctive tendency
to feel; think about; or experience the object in a special way。
(i) Animus; the male archetype
(ii) Anima; the female archetype
(iii) Mandala; the archetype of the self
c) Jung’s view of personality as a constellation of pensating
internal forces; in dynamic balance; resulted in analytic
psychology
IV。 Humanistic Theories
A。 Humanistic approaches to personality are characterized by concern for integrity of the
individual’s personal and conscious experience and growth potential
B。 Features of Humanistic Theories Include:
1。 Some humanists believed motivation for behavior derived from the
individual’s unique tendencies; both innate and learned; to develop
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and change in a positive direction
2。 Self…actualization; a constant striving to realize one’s inherent potential;
to develop one’s own capacities and talents
a) Drive for self…actualization sometimes conflicts with need for
approval from the self and others; especially when the
individual feels certain obligations or conditions must be met
to gain approval; as in:
b) Rogers’ mandate of unconditional positive regard in child…
rearing
c) Horney’s idea that people have a “real self” that requires
favorable environment to be actualized
3。 Humanistic theories have also been described as holistic;
dispositional; phenomenological; and existential
a) Holistic: explain individuals’ separate acts in terms of their
entire personalities
b) Dispositional: focus on innate qualities within the individual
that exert a major influence over the direction behavior will
take
c) Phenomenological: emphasize the individual’s frame of
reference and subjective view of reality; rather than the frame
of an observer or a therapist
d) Existentialist: focus on higher mental processes
C。 Evaluation of Humanistic Theories
1。 Criticisms
a) Concepts are fuzzy; and difficult to explore empirically
b) Traditionally; did not focus on particular characteristics of the
individual
c) Theories were more about human nature and qualities shared
by all people; than about individual personality or the basis of
difference among individuals
d) Emphasis of the role of the self as source of experience and
action neglects environmental variables that also influence
behavior
2。 Contemporary research emphasizes psychobiography; “the systematic
use of psychological theory to transform a life into a coherent and
illuminating story”
V。Social…Learning and Cognitive Theories
A。 Introduction
1。 Learning theory orientation looks to environmental circumstances that
control behavior
2。 Personality is viewed as the sum of overt and covert responses that are
reliably elicited by the individual’s reinforcement history
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3。 Learning by social imitation is by observation of others’ behavior;
without actual performance of the response
4。 Contemporary theories emphasize importance of both cognitive and
behavioral processes
B。 Mischel’s Cognitive…Affective Personality Theory
1。 Posits that response to a specific environmental input depends on a
person’s:
a) Encoding strategies; the way ining information is
processed:
(i) Selective attending
(ii) Categorization
(iii) Making associations
b) Expectancies and beliefs: anticipation of likely outes for
given actions in particular situations
c) Affects: your feelings and emotions; including physiological
responses
d) Goals and values: outes and affective states valued by the
individual
e) petencies and self…regulatory plans; rules developed by the
individual for guiding performance; setting goals; and
evaluating effectiveness
2。 Nature of variables for a given individual result from history of
observations and interactions with others and with inanimate aspects
of the physical environment
3。 Beliefs about others’ personalities es from tracking the way
different situations bring out different behaviors
C。 Bandura’s Cognitive Social…Learning Theory
1。 bines principles of learning with an emphasis on human
interactions in social settings
2。 Stresses the cognitive processes involved in acquiring and
maintaining patterns of behavior and; thus; personality
3。 Critical constructs
a) Reciprocal determinism: the examining of all ponents if one
wishes to understand human behavior; personality; and
social ecology pletely
b) Observational learning: the process by which the individual
changes his or her behavior; based on observations of another
individual’s behavior
c) Self…efficacy: the belief that one can perform adequately in a
particular situation。 Self…efficacy judgments include:
(i) Vicarious experience
(ii) Persuasion
(iii) Monitoring of emotional arousal when thinking
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about a task
4。 Self…efficacy acknowledges the importance of the environment;
including perceptions of supportiveness or unsupportiveness of that
environment
D。 Cantor’s Social Intelligence Theory
1。 Social intelligence refers to the expertise the individual brings to his or
her experience of life tasks
2。 Three types of individual differences are defined:
a) Choice of life goals
b) Knowledge relevant to social interactions
c) Strategies for implementing goals
3。 Social intelligence offers a new perspective on how personality
predicts consistency
E。 Evaluation of Social…Learning and Cognitive Theories
1。 One set of criticisms points out that theories generally overlook
emotion as an important ponent of personality
a) Emphasize rational; information…processing variables
b) Emotions are perceived as by…products of thoughts and
behavior; instead of being assigned specific; independent
importance
c) Theories do not fully recognize the impact of unconscious
motivation on both behavior and affect
2。 A second set of criticisms focuses on vague explanations relative to
creation of personal constructs and petencies
a) Cognitive theories focus on the individual’s perception of
current behavior setting serves to obscure the individual’s
history
b) Kelly’s theory is more a conceptual system than a theory; as it
focuses on structure and processes; saying little about content
of personal constructs
VI。 Self Theories
A。 William James was the earliest advocate of theories addressing how each individual
manages his or her sense of self。 James identified three ponents of the self…experience:
1。 Material me: the bodily self; along with surrounding physical objects
2。 Social me: the individual’s awareness of how others view him or her
3。 Spiritual me: the self that monitors private thoughts and feelings
B。 Dynamic Aspects of Self…Concepts
1。 Self…concept is a dynamic mental structure that motivates; interprets;
organizes; mediates; and regulates intrapersonal and interpersonal
behaviors and processes
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2。 ponents of self…concept include
a) Memories about one’s self
b) Beliefs about one’s traits; motives; values; and abilities
c) Ideal self: the self that one would most like to bee
d) Possible selves that one contemplates enacting
e) Positive or negative evaluations of one’s self (self…esteem)
f) Beliefs about what others think of one’s self
3。 Self…concept includes schemas about the self; self…schemas; that allow
one to organize information about one’s self and influence the way
one processes information about others
4。 Possible selves are “the ideal selves that we would very much like to
bee;” and are also “the selves we could bee and the selves we
are afraid of being”
C。 Self…Esteem and Self…Presentation
1。 Self…esteem is a generalized evaluation of the self; influencing thoughts;
moods; and behavior
a) Low self…esteem may be characterized (in part) by less
certainty about the self and may include the feeling that one
does not know much about one’s self
b) D