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心理学与生活-第77章

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disruptions in the flow of a force he called animal magnetism; 
and pioneered new techniques eventually to bee known 
as hypnotism 

b) Mesmer’s techniques were adopted by Jean Charcot; who 
passed that knowledge to his student; Sigmund Freud 

E。 The Etiology of Psychopathology 
1。 Etiology refers to the causal or contributory factors in the 
development of psychological and medical problems 
2。 Two general categories of causal factors: 
a) Biological approaches assume that psychological disturbances 
are directly attributable to underlying biological factors such 
as structural abnormalities in the brain 

b) Psychological approaches focus on the causal role of 
psychological or social factors as contributing to the 
development of psychopathology。 Three models 
predominate。 

(i) Psychodynamic。 This model; as developed by Freud; 
posited the causes of psychopathology as located 
inside the person; holding those factors to be 
psychological; rather than physiological 
(a) Symptoms are rooted in unconscious conflict; 
much of which derives from conflict between id 
and superego 
(b) Defense mechanisms (repression; denial) can be 
effected to avoid pain resulting from conflicting 
motives and anxieties 
(ii) Behavioral theorists posit abnormal behaviors as 
being acquired in the same manner as normal 
behaviors…through learning and reinforcement 
(a) Focus is on current behavior and current 
conditions that may be reinforcing the behavior 
(b) Both classical and operant conditioning models 
are used to understand the processes that can 
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result in maladaptive behavior 

(iii) Cognitive perspectives may be used to supplement 
behavioristic views 
(a) How the individual perceives and thinks about 
him… or herself; and his/her relations with others 
in the environment are important issues 
(b) This approach suggests problems are the result of 
distortions in perceptions of the reality of a 
situation 
(iv) The sociocultural perspective emphasizes the role 
culture plays in both the diagnosis and etiology of 
abnormal behavior 
c) Most recently; the interactionist perspective is being 
increasingly popular; and is viewed as a product of the 
plex interactions between a number of biological and 
psychological factors 

II。Classifying Psychological Disorders 
A。 Psychological Diagnosis: The label given to an abnormality by classifying and 
categorizing the observed behavior pattern into an approved diagnostic system 
B。 Goals of Classification 
1。 A useful diagnostic system provides the following three benefits: 
a) mon shorthand language: A mon set of agreed…upon 
meanings; given that it is imperative that researchers 
studying different aspects of psychopathology; or evaluating 
treatment programs; can agree on the disorder they are 
observing 

b) Understanding etiology: Under ideal circumstances; a 
diagnosis of a specific disorder should make clear the 
cause(s) of the symptoms; this is not always possible with 
psychological disorders 

c) Treatment plan: Diagnosis should suggest types of treatment 
to consider for particular disorders 

C。 DSM…IV…TR 
1。 The 4th revision of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental 
Disorders (DSM) classifies; defines; and describes more than 200 
mental disorders 
2。 DSM…IV…TR emphasizes the description of patterns of symptoms and 
courses of disorders; rather than etiological theories or treatment 
strategies 
3。 DSM…IV…TR uses dimensions or axes that portray information about 
the psychological; social; and physical factors that may be associated 
with a psychological disorder 
4。 Current DSM…IV…TR categories or axes are: 
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

a) Axis I: Clinical Disorders 

(i) These disorders present symptoms of patterns of 
behavioral or psychological problems that typically 
are painful or impair an area of functioning。 
Included are disorders that emerge in infancy; 
childhood; or adolescence 
b) Axis II。 Personality Disorders & Mental Retardation 

(ii) Details mental retardation and personality 
disorders; i。e。; dysfunctional patterns of perceiving 
and responding to the world 
c) Axis III。 General Medical Conditions 

(iii) Codes physical problems that are relevant to 
understanding or treating an individual’s 
psychological disorders; as detailed on Axes I and II 
d) Axis IV。 Psychosocial and Environmental Problems 

(iv) Codes psychosocial and environmental stressors 
that may impact diagnosis and treatment of an 
individual’s disorder and his or her likelihood of 
recovery 
e) Axis V: Global Assessment of Functioning 

(v) Codes the individual’s overall level of current 
functioning in the psychological; social; and 
occupational domains 
5。 Full diagnosis; in accordance with the DSM system; involves 
consideration of each axis 
6。 Methods used to organize and present categories have shifted with 
each revision of the DSM。 DSM…III…R felt neurotic disorders and 
psychotic disorders had bee too generalized in meaning to 
remain useful as diagnostic categories。 
7。 In addition to the diagnoses on the five traditional axes; DSM…IV…TR 
provides an appendix that describes about 25 culture…bound 
syndromes–recurrent; locality…specific patterns of aberrant behavior 
and troubling experience that may or may not be likened to a 
particular DSM…IV…TR diagnostic category。 Such syndromes include: 
a) Boufée delirante: A sudden outburst of agitated and 
aggressive behavior; marked confusion; and psychomotor 
excitement (West Africa and Haiti) 

b) Koro: An episode of sudden and intense anxiety that the 
penis will recede into the body and possibly cause death 
(South and East Asia) 

c) Taijin kyofusho: An individual’s intense fear that his or her 

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CHAPTER 15: PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 

body; its parts or its functions; displease; embarrass; or are 
offensive to other people (Japan) 

III。 Major Types of Psychological Disorders 
A。 Important Disorders not Covered in Psychology and Life。 
1。 Substance…use disorders include both dependence on and abuse of 
alcohol and drugs 
2。 Somatoform disorders involve physical symptoms that arise without a 
physical cause 
3。 Sexual disorders involve problems with sexual inhibition or 
dysfunction; and deviant sexual practices 
4。 Disorders usually first diagnosed in infancy; childhood; or adolescence 
include mental retardation; munication disorders (such as 
stuttering); and autism 
5。 Eating disorders; such as anorexia and bulimia。 
6。 Some individuals experience more than one disorder at some point 
in their life span; this is known as orbidity; the co…occurrence of 
diseases 
B。 Anxiety Disorders: Types 
1。 Involve the experiencing of fear or anxiety in certain life situations 
when that anxiety is problematic enough to interfere with the ability 
to function or to enjoy life 
2。 Generalized Anxiety Disorder: manifests itself as feeling anxious or 
worried most of the time; when not faced with any specific danger。 
Presenting symptoms must include at least three of the following: 
a) Muscle tension 

b) Fatigue 

c) Restlessness 

d) Poor concentration 

e) Irritability 

f) Sleep difficulties 

3。 Panic Disorder manifests in unexpected; severe panic attacks that 
begin with a feeling of intense apprehension; fear; or terror。 Attacks 
are unexpected; in the sense that they are not evoked by something 
concrete in the situation。 One manifestation of panic disorder is 
agoraphobia; an extreme fear of being in public places or open spaces 
from which escape may be difficult or embarrassing。 
4。 Phobias are diagnosed when the individual suffers from a persistent 
and irrational fear of a specific object; activity; or situation; when 
that fear is excessive and unreasonable; given the reality of the 
threat。 Phobias interfere with adjustment; cause significant distress; 
and inhibit necessary action toward goals。 DSM…IV…TR defines two 
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

categories of phobias。 

a) Social phobia is a persistent; irrational fear; arising in 
anticipation of a public situation in which an individual can 
be observed by others 

b) Specific phobias occur in response to several different types of 
objects or situations 

5。 Obsessive…pulsive Disorder is an anxiety disorder in which the 
individual bees locked into specific patterns of thought and 
behavior。 It may best be defined in terms of its ponent parts 
a) Obsessions are thoughts; images; or impulses that recur or 
persist despite the individual’s efforts to suppress them。 
They are experienced as an unwanted invasion of 
consciousness; seem to be senseless or repugnant; and are 
unacceptable to the individual experiencing them。 

b) pulsions are repetitive; purposeful acts performed 
according to certain rules; in a ritualized manner; and in 
response to an obsession。 The behavior is performed to 
reduce or prevent the disfort associated with some 
dreaded situation; but it is either unreasonable or clearly 
excessive。 

6。 Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD); an anxiety disorder; is 
characterized by the persistent reexperiencing of traumatic events 
through distressing recollections; dreams; hallucinations; or 
flashbacks 
C。 Anxiety Disorders: Causes 
1。 Biological: This view posits a predisposition to fear whatever is 
related to sources of serious danger in the evolutionary past; thus the 
preparedness hypothesis suggests that we carry an evolutionary 
tendency to respond quickly and “thoughtlessly” to once…feared 
stimuli。 Some evidence is available linking this disorder to 
abnormalities in the basal ganglia and frontal lobe of the brain。 
2。 Psychodynamic: This model begins with the assumption that 
symptoms of anxiety disorders derive from underlying psychic 
conflicts or fears; with the symptoms being attempts to protect the 
individual from psychological pain 
3。 Behavioral explanations of anxiety focus on the way symptoms of 
anxiety disorders are reinforced or conditioned 
4。 Cognitive perspectives concentrate on the perceptual processes or 
attitudes that may distort a person’s estimate of the danger he or she 
is facing。 Individuals suffering from anxiety disorders may interpret 
their own distress as a sign of imminent danger 
D。 Mood Disorders: Types 
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CHAPTER 15: PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 

1。 A mood disorder is an emotional disturbance; such as a severe 
depression or depression alternating with manic states 
2。 Major Depressive Disorder occurs so frequently that it has been called 
the “mon cold” of psychopathology; virtually everyone has 
experienced elements of this disorder at some time during their 
lives。 
3。 Bipolar depression is characterized by periods of severe depression; 
alternating with manic episodes 
E。 Mood Disorders: Causes 
1。 Biological: Growing evidence suggests that the incidence of mood 
disorder is influenced by genetic factors 
2。 Psychodynamic: This approach purports the causal mechanism(s) to 
be unconscious conflicts and hostile feelings originating in 
childhood。 Freud believed the source of depression to be displaced 

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