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心理学与生活-第83章

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hysterical conversion resulting from psychogenic causes 
5。 Free Association and Catharsis 
a) Free association involves allowing the mind to wander and 
giving a running account of thoughts; wishes; while relaxing 
fortably 

(i) Freud maintained free associations were 
predetermined; not random 
(ii) Encouraged expression of strong feelings; repressed 
through fear of punishment or retaliation; an 
emotional release termed catharsis 
6。 Resistance is an inability or an unwillingness to discuss certain ideas; 
desires; or experiences 
7。 Dream analysis is a therapeutic technique that examines content of 
dreams to discover underlying or disguised motivations and 
symbolic meanings of significant life experiences and desires 
8。 Transference and Countertransference 
a) Transference is the development by the patient of emotional 
feelings toward the therapist 

b) Countertransference occurs when the therapist es to like 
or dislike a patient because the patient is perceived as 
similar to significant people in the therapist’s life 

B。 Neo…Freudian Therapies 
1。 Freud’s followers placed more emphasis than did Freud on: 
a) Patient’s current social environment; less focus on past 

b) Patient’s continuing life experiences 

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CHAPTER 16: THERAPIES FOR PERSONAL CHANGE 

c) The role of social motivation and interpersonal relations of 
love 

d) The significance of ego functioning and development of self…
concept 

2。 Harry Stack Sullivan felt Freudian therapy failed to recognize the 
importance of social relationships 
a) Posited building of a self…system to keep anxiety at a 
tolerable level; with the system deriving from the child’s 
interpersonal experiences。 

3。 Karen Horney stressed importance of environmental and cultural 
contexts in which neurotic behavior is expressed; rejecting Freudian 
phallocentrism in favor of gynocentrism 
4。 Heinz Kohut emphasized the self; and founded the object relations 
school of psychodynamics 
III。 Behavior Therapies 
A。 Behavior therapy and behavior modification both refer to the systematic use of principles 
of learning to increase the frequency of desired behaviors and/or decrease that of problem 
behaviors 
B。 Counterconditioning 
1。 A new response is conditioned to replace or “counter” a maladaptive 
response 
2。 Systematic Desensitization and Other Exposure Therapies 
a) Joseph Wolpe’s theory of reciprocal inhibition states that the 
nervous system cannot be relaxed and agitated 
simultaneously。 

b) Systematic desensitization: A behavioral therapy technique in 
which a client is taught to prevent the arousal of anxiety by 
confronting the feared stimulus while relaxed。 
Desensitization therapy involves three major steps: 

(i) Identification of anxiety…provoking stimuli; and 
arranging them hierarchically; from weakest to 
strongest 
(ii) Training in progressive deep…muscle relaxation 
(iii) Actual process of desensitization; the progressive 
imagining of stimuli; from weakest to strongest 
c) Implosion therapy: the opposite of desensitization。 Client is 
exposed immediately to the most frightening stimuli at the 
top of his or her anxiety hierarchy; but in a safe setting 

d) Flooding: similar to implosion; but involves clients being 
placed in the phobic situation 

3。 Aversion therapy uses counterconditioning to pair stimuli with strong 
noxious stimuli 
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

C。 Contingency Management 
1。 Relies on operant conditioning principles pioneered by B。 F。 Skinner 
2。 Refers to the general treatment strategy of changing behavior by 
modifying its consequences。 Major techniques are: 
a) Positive reinforcement strategies 

(i) Token economies 
(ii) Shaping 
(iii) Behavioral contracts 
b) Extinction strategies are useful when dysfunctional 
behaviors have been maintained by unrecognized 
reinforcing circumstances 

D。 Social…Learning Therapy 
1。 Social…learning therapy is designed to modify problematic behavior 
patterns by arranging conditions in which the client will observe 
models being reinforced for a desirable form of responding。 
2。 Two aspects of this approach include imitation of models and social 
skills training 
a) Imitation of models: Individuals acquire responses through 
observation of others (models) 

b) Social…skills training: Training individuals with inadequate 
social skills to be more effective using behavioral rehearsal 

E。 Generalization Techniques 
1。 Do clients use new behavior patterns generated in the therapeutic 
setting in everyday situations? 
2。 Generalization techniques attempt to increase similarity of target 
behaviors; reinforcers; models; and stimulus demands between 
therapy and real…life settings 
IV。 Cognitive Therapies 
A。 Cognitive Therapies attempt to change problem feelings and behaviors by changing the 
way the client thinks about significant life experiences 
B。 Cognitive Behavior Modification 
1。 Approach bines cognitive emphasis on the role of thoughts and 
attitudes influencing motivations and response with behaviorist 
focus on changing performance through reinforcement contingencies 
2。 Unacceptable behavior patterns are modified by cognitive 
restructuring 
3。 Critical aspect is discovery by therapist and client of how the client 
thinks about and expresses the problem for which therapy is sought 
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CHAPTER 16: THERAPIES FOR PERSONAL CHANGE 

C。 Changing False Beliefs 
1。 Some cognitive therapists argue that many psychological problems 
arise as a function of how people think about themselves relative to 
other people and the events they face。 Faulty thinking can be based 
on: 
a) Unreasonable attitudes 

b) False premises 

c) Rigid rules that put behavior on “autopilot” 

2。 Cognitive Therapy for Depression 
a) The therapist helps the client to identify his or her irrational 
ways of thinking and to learn more realistic ways to 
formulate personal experiences 

b) Four tactics used to change the cognitive foundation that 
supports the depression: 

(i) Challenging basic assumptions about his or her 
functioning 
(ii) Evaluating evidence the client has for and against 
accuracy of automatic thoughts 
(iii) Reattributing blame to situational factors rather than 
client’s inpetence 
(iv) Discussing alternative solutions to plex tasks 
that could otherwise lead to experiences of failure 
3。 Rational…Emotive Therapy (RET): A prehensive system of 
personality change based on transformation of irrational beliefs that 
cause undesirable emotional reactions 
a) RET teaches clients to recognize “shoulds;” “oughts;” and 
“musts” that are controlling their actions and preventing 
them from choosing the lives they want 

b) RET’s goal is to increase sense of self…worth and potential for 
self…actualization 

V。Existential…Humanistic Therapies 
A。 Background 
1。 Existential crises include problems in everyday living; lack of 
meaningful human relationships; and absence of goals or purpose 
2。 Existential…humanistic philosophy gave rise to the human…potential 
movement; which enpassed practices and methods enhancing the 
potential of the average human being toward greater levels of 
performance and greater richness of experience 
B。 Client…Centered Therapy 
1。 Primary goal is to promote healthy psychological growth of the 
individual 
2。 Assumption: All people share the tendency to self…actualize; to reach 
their potential 
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

3。 Incongruence: a conflict between naturally positive self…image and 
negative external criticism。 Creates anxiety; unhappiness; and low 
self…worth 
4。 Therapeutic strategy: To recognize; accept; and clarify client’s feelings 
in an atmosphere of unconditional positive regard; nonjudgmental 
acceptance and respect for the client。 
C。 Gestalt Therapy 
1。 Focus on uniting of mind and body to make the person whole 
2。 Goal of self…awareness by helping clients express pent…up feelings 
and unfinished business from past conflicts 
VI。 Group Therapies: 
A。 Marital and Family Therapy 
1。 Couples counseling seeks clarity in munication between partners; 
and works to improve the quality of interaction。 It is more effective 
in resolution of marital problems than individual therapy for only 
one partner 
2。 Family therapy client is the entire nuclear family; with each member 
treated as a member of a system of relationships 
a) Focus is on altering psychological space between people 

b) The interpersonal dynamics of people acting as a unit 

c) Most family therapists assume problems brought to therapy 
to represent situational difficulties; rather than dispositional 
aspects of individuals 

d) Job of family therapist is understanding the structure of the 
family and the forces acting on it 

B。 munity Support Groups 
1。 Self…help groups help many people obtain psychological support in 
the munity setting 
2。 Address four basic problem areas: 
a) Addictive behavior 
b) Physical and mental disorders 
c) Life transition or other crises 
d) Trauma of family and friends of those with specific 
problems 

VII。 Biomedical Therapies 
A。 Psychosurgery and Electroconvulsive Therapy 
1。 Psychosurgery is the general term for surgical procedures performed 
on brain tissue to alleviate psychological disorders; with the 
prefrontal lobotomy being best known 
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CHAPTER 16: THERAPIES FOR PERSONAL CHANGE 

2。 Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) is the use of electroconvulsive shock 
to treat psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia; mania; and; 
most often; severe depression 
a) ECT is successful in treatment of severe depression。 It works 
quickly。 

b) Potentially negative effects of ECT include temporary 
disorientation and memory deficits 

B。 Drug Therapy 
1。 Psychopharmacology: the branch of psychology investigating the 
effects of drugs on behavior 
2。 The three major categories of drugs used today are: 
a) Antipsychotics alter symptoms of schizophrenia。 Examples 
include Thorazine; Haldol; and Clozaril。 

b) Antidepressants increase the activity of the neurotransmitters 
norepinephrine and serotonin。 Examples include Tofranil; 
Prozac; Paxil; and Zoloft 

c) Antianxiety agents (anxiolytics) adjust levels of 
neurotransmitter activity in the brain。 Examples include 
Valium and Xanax。 

3。 Prescriptions for Psychoactive Drugs 
a) The rate at which drugs are prescribed changes over time 

b) From 1985 to 1994; prescription of antianxiety tranquilizers 
decreased from 52 to 33 percent of all mental health doctors 
visits; while prescriptions for antidepressants increased from 
30 to 45 percent 

4。 When Is Drug Therapy Necessary? 
a) Although drugs can produce tremendous improvements in 
psychological functioning; research suggests that some 
forms of therapy may have the same effect on the brain as a 
course of drug treatment 

VIII。 Does Therapy Work? 
A。 Evaluating Therapeutic Effectiveness 
1。 Spontaneous…remission effect is one baseline criterion of naturally 
occurring change against which effectiveness of therapies must be 
assessed 
2。 Placebo therapy: A neutral therapy that creates expectations o

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