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because¡¡they£»¡¡in¡¡some¡¡sense£»¡¡expect¡¡that¡¡others¡¡will¡¡perform¡¡altruistic¡¡
behaviors¡¡for¡¡them¡¡
B¡£¡¡Motives¡¡for¡¡Prosocial¡¡Behavior¡¡
1¡£¡¡Research¡¡suggests¡¡that¡¡there¡¡are¡¡four¡¡forces¡¡that¡¡prompt¡¡people¡¡to¡¡
act¡¡for¡¡the¡¡public¡¡good£º¡¡
a£©¡¡Altruism£º¡¡Acting¡¡in¡¡response¡¡to¡¡a¡¡motive¡¡to¡¡benefit¡¡others£»¡¡as¡¡
in¡¡the¡¡case¡¡of¡¡the¡¡driver¡¡who¡¡saved¡¡another¡¡person¡¯s¡¡life¡¡

b£©¡¡Egoism£º¡¡Performing¡¡prosocial¡¡behaviors¡¡ultimately¡¡in¡¡one¡¯s¡¡
own¡¡self¡­interest£»¡¡someone¡¡might¡¡perform¡¡a¡¡helping¡¡
behavior¡¡to¡¡receive¡¡a¡¡similar¡¡favor¡¡in¡¡return¡¡or¡¡a¡¡reward¡¡

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c£©¡¡Collectivism£º¡¡Performing¡¡prosocial¡¡behaviors¡¡to¡¡benefit¡¡a¡¡
particular¡¡group£»¡¡people¡¡might¡¡perform¡¡helping¡¡behaviors¡¡to¡¡
improve¡¡circumstances¡¡for¡¡their¡¡families£»¡¡fraternities£»¡¡
political¡¡parties£»¡¡and¡¡so¡¡on¡¡

d£©¡¡Principlism£º¡¡Performing¡¡prosocial¡¡behaviors¡¡to¡¡uphold¡¡moral¡¡
principles£»¡¡someone¡¡might¡¡act¡¡in¡¡a¡¡prosocial¡¡manner¡¡because¡¡
of¡¡a¡¡religious¡¡or¡¡civic¡¡principle¡¡

2¡£¡¡The¡¡principle¡¡of¡¡justice¡¡suggests¡¡that¡¡each¡¡person¡¡should¡¡have¡¡an¡¡
equal¡¡probability¡¡of¡¡getting¡¡the¡¡positive¡¡or¡¡negative¡¡oute¡¡
3¡£¡¡The¡¡empathy¡­altruism¡¡hypothesis¡¡suggests¡¡that¡¡when¡¡one¡¡feels¡¡
empathy¡¡toward¡¡another¡¡individual£»¡¡those¡¡feelings¡¡evoke¡¡an¡¡
altruistic¡¡motive¡¡to¡¡provide¡¡help¡¡
C¡£¡¡The¡¡Effects¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Situation¡¡on¡¡Prosocial¡¡Behavior¡¡
1¡£¡¡Bystander¡¡Intervention£»¡¡people¡¯s¡¡willingness¡¡to¡¡help¡¡strangers¡¡in¡¡
distress£»¡¡is¡¡sensitive¡¡to¡¡characteristics¡¡of¡¡the¡¡situation¡¡
a£©¡¡Latan¨¨¡¡and¡¡Darley¡¯s¡¡research¡¡indicates¡¡likelihood¡¡of¡¡
intervention¡¡is¡¡dependent¡¡on¡¡number¡¡of¡¡bystanders¡¡the¡¡
participant¡¡thought¡¡were¡¡present¡¡

b£©¡¡Diffusion¡¡of¡¡responsibility¡¡occurs¡¡when¡¡more¡¡than¡¡one¡¡person¡¡
who¡¡could¡¡help¡¡is¡¡present¡£¡¡Others¡¡assume¡¡that¡¡someone¡¡else¡¡
will¡¡or¡¡should¡¡help¡¡

2¡£¡¡Facets¡¡of¡¡emergency¡¡situations£º¡¡
a£©¡¡Bystanders¡¡must¡¡notice¡¡the¡¡emergency¡¡

b£©¡¡Bystanders¡¡must¡¡label¡¡events¡¡as¡¡an¡¡emergency¡¡

c£©¡¡Bystander¡¡must¡¡feel¡¡responsibility¡¡

II¡£Aggression¡¡
A¡£¡¡Evolutionary¡¡Perspectives¡¡
1¡£¡¡Aggression¡¡is¡¡behavior¡¡that¡¡causes¡¡psychological¡¡or¡¡physical¡¡harm¡¡to¡¡
another¡¡individual¡¡
2¡£¡¡Animals¡¡may¡¡mit¡¡aggressive¡¡behaviors¡¡to¡¡ensure¡¡themselves¡¡
access¡¡to¡¡desired¡¡mates¡¡and¡¡to¡¡protect¡¡the¡¡resources¡¡that¡¡allow¡¡
themselves¡¡and¡¡their¡¡offspring¡¡to¡¡survive¡¡
3¡£¡¡Lorenz¡¡argued¡¡that£»¡¡unlike¡¡most¡¡other¡¡species£»¡¡humans¡¡did¡¡not¡¡have¡¡
appropriately¡¡evolved¡¡mechanisms¡¡to¡¡inhibit¡¡their¡¡aggressive¡¡
impulses¡£¡¡Because¡¡of¡¡this£»¡¡Lorenz¡¡declared¡¡humans¡¡to¡¡be¡¡at¡¡the¡¡
pinnacle¡¡of¡¡aggression¡¡
4¡£¡¡Research¡¡has¡¡contradicted¡¡Lorenz¡¯s¡¡contention¡¡in¡¡two¡¡ways¡¡
a£©¡¡Field¡¡research¡¡with¡¡a¡¡variety¡¡of¡¡animal¡¡species¡¡suggests¡¡that¡¡
many¡¡other¡¡species¡¡mit¡¡the¡¡same¡¡range¡¡of¡¡aggressive¡¡
acts¡¡as¡¡do¡¡humans¡¡

b£©¡¡Humans¡¡have¡¡more¡¡inhibitory¡¡control¡¡over¡¡their¡¡use¡¡of¡¡

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aggression¡¡than¡¡Lorenz¡¡suggested¡¡

5¡£¡¡Although¡¡Lorenz¡¯s¡¡idea¡¡may¡¡be¡¡flawed£»¡¡the¡¡general¡¡idea¡¡that¡¡
aggressive¡¡responses¡¡are¡¡part¡¡of¡¡human¡¯s¡¡genetic¡¡endowment¡¡is¡¡on¡¡
firm¡¡ground¡¡
B¡£¡¡Individual¡¡Differences¡¡
1¡£¡¡Research¡¡has¡¡focused¡¡on¡¡brain¡¡and¡¡hormonal¡¡differences¡¡that¡¡may¡¡
mark¡¡a¡¡predisposition¡¡toward¡¡aggressive¡¡behavior¡¡
2¡£¡¡High¡¡levels¡¡of¡¡serotonin¡¡may¡¡impair¡¡the¡¡brain¡¯s¡¡ability¡¡to¡¡regulate¡¡
negative¡¡emotions¡¡and¡¡impulsive¡¡behavior¡¡
3¡£¡¡Studies¡¡also¡¡suggest¡¡that¡¡some¡¡individual¡¡differences¡¡in¡¡aggression¡¡
may¡¡reflect¡¡muted¡¡stress¡¡responses¡¡
C¡£¡¡Situational¡¡Influences¡¡
1¡£¡¡The¡¡Frustration¡­Aggression¡¡Hypothesis¡¡suggests¡¡that¡¡frustration¡¡occurs¡¡
in¡¡situations¡¡in¡¡which¡¡people¡¡are¡¡prevented¡¡from¡¡obtaining¡¡their¡¡
goals£»¡¡a¡¡rise¡¡in¡¡frustration¡¡leads¡¡to¡¡a¡¡greater¡¡probability¡¡of¡¡aggression¡¡
2¡£¡¡Research¡¡suggests¡¡that¡¡there¡¡is¡¡a¡¡positive¡¡relationship¡¡between¡¡
temperature¡¡and¡¡aggression¡¡
3¡£¡¡If¡¡you¡¡believe¡¡that¡¡someone¡¡did¡¡something¡¡intentionally¡¡to¡¡anger¡¡or¡¡
upset¡¡you£»¡¡you¡¡are¡¡more¡¡likely¡¡to¡¡respond¡¡with¡¡aggression¡¡
4¡£¡¡Some¡¡aggression¡¡is¡¡instrumental¡¡in¡¡that¡¡it¡¡is¡¡performed¡¡in¡¡order¡¡to¡¡
achieve¡¡an¡¡end¡¡
D¡£¡¡Cultural¡¡Constraints¡¡
1¡£¡¡Whether¡¡an¡¡individual¡¡will¡¡display¡¡aggression¡¡is¡¡highly¡¡constrained¡¡
by¡¡cultural¡¡values¡¡and¡¡norms¡¡
2¡£¡¡Construal¡¡of¡¡self¡¡plays¡¡a¡¡role¡¡in¡¡aggressive¡¡behavior¡¡
a£©¡¡Individuals¡¡in¡¡cultures¡¡that¡¡value¡¡interdependence¡¡are¡¡less¡¡
likely¡¡to¡¡respond¡¡aggressively¡¡

b£©¡¡A¡¡culture¡¡of¡¡honor¡¡guides¡¡behavior¡¡in¡¡southern¡¡states¡¡because¡¡
even¡¡small¡¡disputes¡¡bee¡¡contests¡¡for¡¡reputation¡¡and¡¡
social¡¡status¡¡

3¡£¡¡Norms¡¡of¡¡Aggressive¡¡Behavior¡¡
a£©¡¡The¡¡availability¡¡of¡¡aggressive¡¡models¡¡in¡¡the¡¡environment£»¡¡
such¡¡as¡¡that¡¡shown¡¡on¡¡television£»¡¡influence¡¡aggressive¡¡
behavior£»¡¡especially¡¡of¡¡children¡¡

b£©¡¡Exposure¡¡to¡¡violence¡¡at¡¡home¡¡and¡¡in¡¡the¡¡munity¡¡is¡¡also¡¡a¡¡
factor¡¡in¡¡aggression¡¡

III¡£¡¡Prejudice¡¡
A¡£¡¡Definition¡¡
1¡£¡¡No¡¡human¡¡weakness¡¡is¡¡more¡¡destructive¡¡of¡¡the¡¡dignity¡¡of¡¡the¡¡
individual¡¡and¡¡the¡¡social¡¡bonds¡¡of¡¡humanity¡¡than¡¡prejudice¡¡
360¡¡


CHAPTER¡¡18£º¡¡SOCIAL¡¡PSYCHOLOGY£»¡¡SOCIETY£»¡¡AND¡¡CULTURE¡¡

2¡£¡¡Prejudice¡¡is¡¡a¡¡learned¡¡attitude¡¡toward¡¡a¡¡target¡¡object£»¡¡involving¡¡
negative¡¡feelings¡¡£¨dislike¡¡or¡¡fear£©£»¡¡negative¡¡beliefs¡¡£¨stereotypes£©¡¡that¡¡
justify¡¡that¡¡attitude£»¡¡and¡¡a¡¡behavioral¡¡intention¡¡to¡¡avoid£»¡¡control£»¡¡
dominate£»¡¡or¡¡eliminate¡¡those¡¡in¡¡the¡¡target¡¡group¡¡
3¡£¡¡A¡¡false¡¡belief¡¡qualifies¡¡as¡¡prejudice¡¡when¡¡it¡¡resists¡¡change¡¡even¡¡in¡¡the¡¡
face¡¡of¡¡appropriate¡¡evidence¡¡of¡¡its¡¡falseness¡¡
B¡£¡¡Origins¡¡of¡¡Prejudice¡¡
1¡£¡¡Social¡¡categorization¡¡is¡¡the¡¡process¡¡by¡¡which¡¡people¡¡organize¡¡their¡¡
social¡¡environment¡¡by¡¡categorizing¡¡themselves¡¡and¡¡others¡¡into¡¡
groups¡¡
2¡£¡¡People¡¡divide¡¡the¡¡world¡¡into¡¡in¡­groups£»¡¡the¡¡groups¡¡with¡¡which¡¡they¡¡
identify¡¡as¡¡members£»¡¡and¡¡out¡­groups£»¡¡the¡¡groups¡¡with¡¡which¡¡they¡¡do¡¡
not¡¡identify¡¡
a£©¡¡In¡­group¡¡bias¡¡is¡¡the¡¡evaluation¡¡of¡¡one¡¯s¡¡own¡¡group¡¡as¡¡better¡¡
than¡¡others¡¡

b£©¡¡People¡¡defined¡¡as¡¡part¡¡of¡¡the¡¡out¡­group¡¡almost¡¡instantly¡¡are¡¡
candidates¡¡for¡¡hostile¡¡feelings¡¡and¡¡unfair¡¡treatment¡¡

c£©¡¡Automatic¡¡acts¡¡of¡¡prejudice¡¡develop¡¡as¡¡a¡¡function¡¡of¡¡
messages¡¡the¡¡individual¡¡has¡¡unknowingly¡¡internalized¡¡

C¡£¡¡Effects¡¡of¡¡Stereotyping¡¡
1¡£¡¡Stereotypes¡¡are¡¡generalizations¡¡about¡¡a¡¡group¡¡of¡¡people¡¡in¡¡which¡¡the¡¡
same¡¡characteristics¡¡are¡¡assigned¡¡to¡¡all¡¡members¡¡of¡¡the¡¡group¡¡
2¡£¡¡Because¡¡stereotypes¡¡powerfully¡¡encode¡¡expectations£»¡¡they¡¡contribute¡¡
to¡¡the¡¡social¡¡construction¡¡of¡¡reality¡£¡¡Stereotypes¡¡influence¡¡judgments¡¡
about¡¡what¡¡exists¡¡in¡¡the¡¡environment¡¡
3¡£¡¡Stereotype¡¡threatoccurs¡¡when¡¡people¡¡are¡¡placed¡¡in¡¡situations¡¡to¡¡which¡¡
negative¡¡aspects¡¡of¡¡stereotypes¡¡are¡¡relevant¡¡
4¡£¡¡Research¡¡leads¡¡to¡¡the¡¡conclusion¡¡that¡¡prejudice¡¡is¡¡easy¡¡to¡¡create£»¡¡but¡¡
difficult¡¡to¡¡remove¡¡
D¡£¡¡Reversing¡¡Prejudice¡¡
1¡£¡¡Sherif¡¯s¡¡Robbers¡¡Cave¡¡experiment¡¡brought¡¡two¡¡groups¡¡of¡¡boys¡¡
together¡¡at¡¡a¡¡summer¡¡camp¡£¡¡The¡¡experiment¡¡found£º¡¡
a£©¡¡Minimal¡¡groups¡¡can¡¡lead¡¡to¡¡great¡¡hostility¡¡
b£©¡¡Unsuccessful¡¡attempts¡¡at¡¡hostility¡¡reduction¡¡

£¨i£©¡¡Propaganda¡¡approach¡¡
£¨ii£©¡¡Nonpetitive¡¡circumstances¡¡were¡¡effective¡£¡¡
c£©¡¡Cooperative¡¡action¡¡and¡¡shared¡¡goals¡¡was¡¡successful¡¡in¡¡
reduction¡¡of¡¡hostilities¡¡

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d£©¡¡The¡¡lesson¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Robbers¡¡Cave¡¡is¡¡that¡¡the¡¡elimination¡¡of¡¡
prejudice¡¡takes¡¡more¡¡than¡¡mere¡¡contact¡¡between¡¡groups¡£¡¡A¡¡
program¡¡that¡¡effectively¡¡bats¡¡prejudice¡¡must¡¡foster¡¡
personal¡¡interaction¡¡in¡¡the¡¡pursuit¡¡of¡¡shared¡¡goals¡¡

2¡£¡¡In¡¡a¡¡jigsaw¡¡classroom£»¡¡each¡¡pupil¡¡is¡¡given¡¡a¡¡part¡¡of¡¡the¡¡total¡¡material¡¡to¡¡
master¡¡and¡¡then¡¡share¡¡with¡¡the¡¡other¡¡group¡¡members¡£¡¡Interracial¡¡
conflict¡¡and¡¡academic¡¡performance¡¡improve¡¡in¡¡classes¡¡where¡¡the¡¡
jigsaw¡¡technique¡¡is¡¡applied¡¡
3¡£¡¡Deprovincialization¡¡involves¡¡people¡¡learning¡¡more¡¡about¡¡out¡­group¡¡
social¡¡norms¡¡and¡¡customs¡¡and¡¡being¡¡less¡¡¡°provincial¡±¡¡about¡¡the¡¡
correctness¡¡of¡¡the¡¡in¡­group¡¡
IV¡£¡¡The¡¡Psychology¡¡of¡¡Conflict¡¡and¡¡Peace¡¡
A¡£¡¡Peace¡¡psychology¡¡represents¡¡an¡¡interdisciplinary¡¡approach¡¡to¡¡prevention¡¡of¡¡nuclear¡¡war¡¡
and¡¡the¡¡concurrent¡¡maintenance¡¡of¡¡peace¡¡
1¡£¡¡Aims¡¡of¡¡peace¡¡psychology¡¡include¡¡understanding¡¡of¡¡forces¡¡that¡¡give¡¡
rise¡¡to¡¡false¡¡beliefs£»¡¡misperceptions£»¡¡and¡¡erroneous¡¡attributions¡¡on¡¡
issues¡¡germane¡¡to¡¡nuclear¡¡arms£»¡¡military¡¡strength£»¡¡national¡¡security£»¡¡
and¡¡an¡¡understanding¡¡of¡¡how¡¡nations¡¡negotiate¡¡and¡¡make¡¡judgments¡¡
in¡¡crisis¡¡situations¡¡
B¡£¡¡Obedience¡¡to¡¡Authority¨CMilgram¡¯s¡¡obedience¡¡to¡¡authority¡¡
1¡£¡¡The¡¡Obedience¡¡Paradigm¡¡
a£©¡¡Participants¡¡delivered¡¡what¡¡they¡¡believed¡¡to¡¡be¡¡electric¡¡
shocks¡¡to¡¡another¡¡individual¡¡

£¨i£©¡¡Participants¡¯¡¡social¡¡role¡¡was¡¡that¡¡of¡¡teacher£»¡¡with¡¡
teacher¡¡punishing¡¡errors¡¡made¡¡by¡¡the¡¡learner¡¡
£¨ii£©¡¡Teachers¡¡followed¡¡rule¡¡of¡¡increasing¡¡level¡¡of¡¡shock¡¡
after¡¡each¡¡error£»¡¡until¡¡learning¡¡was¡¡errorless¡¡
£¨iii£©¡¡Experimenter¡¡was¡¡the¡¡legitimate¡¡authority£»¡¡
presented¡¡rules¡¡and¡¡assigned¡¡roles¡¡
£¨iv£©¡¡Dependent¡¡variable¡¡was¡¡final¡¡level¡¡of¡¡shock¡¡that¡¡a¡¡
teacher¡¡gave¡¡before¡¡refusing¡¡to¡¡continue¡¡obeying¡¡
authority¡¡
2¡£¡¡The¡¡Test¡¡Situation¡¡
a£©¡¡Experiment¡¡staged¡¡to¡¡convince¡¡teachers¡¡£¨participants£©¡¡they¡¡
were¡¡causing¡¡pain¡¡and¡¡suffering£»¡¡perhaps¡¡even¡¡death¡¡to¡¡
another¡¡person¡£¡¡In¡¡fact£»¡¡no¡¡electric¡¡shock¡¡was¡¡given¡¡

b£©¡¡Learner¡¡£¨confederate£©¡¡was¡¡to¡¡memorize¡¡word¡¡pairs¡¡and¡¡
make¡¡prearranged¡¡errors¡¡

c£©¡¡Teachers¡¡were¡¡to¡¡shock¡¡learner¡¡following¡¡each¡¡error£»¡¡
increasing¡¡shock¡¡level¡¡with¡¡each¡¡error¡¡

d£©¡¡Learner¡¡¡°protested¡±¡¡as¡¡shock¡¡level¡¡increased¡¡until¡¡teacher¡¡
hesitated¡¡or¡¡protested¡¡delivery¡¡of¡¡the¡¡next¡¡shock¡¡

e£©¡¡Experimenter¡¡told¡¡teacher¡¡to¡¡continue¡¡

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£¨i£©¡¡Most¡¡participants¡¡plained¡¡or¡¡protested¡¡more£»¡¡
saying¡¡they¡¡could¡¡not¡¡continue¡¡
£¨ii£©¡¡Female¡¡participants¡¡were¡¡often¡¡in¡¡tears¡¡
f£©¡¡Experimental¡¡situation¡¡produced¡¡great¡¡conflict¡¡in¡¡
participants¡¡

3¡£¡¡Results¡¡
a£©¡¡Psychiatrists¡¡had¡¡predicted¡¡participants¡¡would¡¡not¡¡¡°shock¡±¡¡
above¡¡150¡¡volts£»¡¡presuming¡¡that¡¡only¡¡abnormal¡¡individuals¡¡
would¡¡blindly¡¡obey¡¡orders¡¡to¡¡harm¡¡another¡¡person¡¡

b£©¡¡Psychiatrists¡¡based¡¡their¡¡evaluations¡¡on¡¡the¡¡presumed¡¡
dispositional¡¡qualities¡¡of¡¡participants£»¡¡overlooking¡¡the¡¡power¡¡
of¡¡the¡¡situation¡¡

c£©¡¡The¡¡majority¡¡of¡¡participants¡¡obeyed¡¡the¡¡authority¡¡fully¡£¡¡They¡¡
may¡¡have¡¡dissented£»¡¡but¡¡they¡¡did¡¡not¡¡disobey¡¡

d£©¡¡Alternative¡¡explanations¡¡of¡¡results¡¡

£¨i£©¡¡Participants¡¡may¡¡not¡¡have¡¡believed¡¡they¡¡were¡¡
actually¡¡shocking¡¡the¡¡confederate¡¡
£¨ii£©¡¡Participant¡¯s¡¡obedience¡¡may¡¡have¡¡been¡¡a¡¡function¡¡of¡¡
demand¡¡characteristics¡¡of¡¡the¡¡situation¡¡
4¡£¡¡Why¡¡do¡¡people¡¡obey¡¡authority£¿¡¡
a£©¡¡Power¡¡of¡¡the¡¡situation¡¡

£¨i£©¡¡Obedience¡¡is¡¡due¡¡to¡¡situational£»¡¡rather¡¡than¡¡
personality¡¡variables¡¡
£¨ii£©¡¡Obedience¡¡is¡¡high¡¡when¡¡obedience¡¡is¡¡first¡¡modeled¡¡
by¡¡a¡¡peer¡¡or¡¡when¡¡a¡¡participant¡¡acts¡¡as¡¡an¡¡
intermediary¡¡bystander¡¡
b£©¡¡Data¡¡indicate¡¡situational¡¡control¡¡of¡¡behavior£»¡¡rather¡¡than¡¡
individual¡¡differences¡¡in¡¡participants¡¡

c£©¡¡Other¡¡reasons¡¡include¡¡normative¡¡and¡¡informational¡¡sources¡¡
of¡¡influence¡­people¡¡want¡¡to¡¡be¡¡liked¡¡and¡¡correct¡¡

d£©¡¡In¡¡ambiguous¡¡situations£»¡¡people¡¡rely¡¡on¡¡others¡¡for¡¡cues¡¡for¡¡
appropriate¡¡behavior¡¡

e£©¡¡Participants¡¡were¡¡probably¡¡be¡¡confused¡¡about¡¡how¡¡to¡¡
disobey¡¡

f£©¡¡Obedience¡¡to¡¡authority¡¡is¡¡ingrained¡¡in¡¡childhood¡­obey¡¡
authority¡¡without¡¡question¡¡

5¡£¡¡The¡¡Milgram¡¡experiments¡¡and¡¡You¡¡
a£©¡¡Resisting¡¡situational¡¡forces¡¡requires¡¡both¡¡awareness¡¡and¡¡
acceptance¡¡of¡¡the¡¡fact¡¡that¡¡those¡¡forces¡¡can¡¡be¡¡powerful¡¡
enough¡¡to¡¡affect¡¡almost¡¡anyone¡¡

b£©¡¡Even¡¡normal£»¡¡well¡­meaning¡¡individuals¡¡are¡¡subject¡¡to¡¡
potential¡¡frailty¡¡in¡¡the¡¡presence¡¡of¡¡strong¡¡situational¡¡and¡¡
social¡¡forces¡¡

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C¡£¡¡The¡¡Psychology¡¡of¡¡Genocide¡¡and¡¡War¡¡
1¡£¡¡Ervin¡¡Staub¡¡suggests¡¡that¡¡this¡¡set¡¡of¡¡cultural¡¡and¡¡psychological¡¡

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