心理学与生活-第93章

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social　forces　

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C。　The　Psychology　of　Genocide　and　War　
1。　Ervin　Staub　suggests　that　this　set　of　cultural　and　psychological　forces　
makes　campaigns　of　terror　possible：　
a）　The　starting　point　is　often　severely　difficult　life　conditions；　
such　as　depression　and　political　upheaval　

b）　Under　conditions　of　difficulty；　people　intensify　the　ordinary　
impulse　to　define　in…groups　and　out…groups；　creating　
scapegoats　

c）　Because　the　scapegoat　group　is　blamed　for　society’s　ills；　it　
bees　easy　to　justify　violence　against　them　

d）　The　violence　against　the　scapegoat　group　begins　to　justify　
itself…；　stopping　the　violence　would　mean　admitting　that　the　
violence　had　been　wrong　to　begin　with　

2。　Concepts　and　Images　of　the　Enemy　
a）　When　scapegoating　does　not　lead　to　genocide；　it　may　still　
lead　to　the　creation　of　enemies　

b）　Dehumanization；　casting　out…groups　as　animals；　also　helps　
create　images　of　the　enemy　

c）　Why　Will　People　Go　to　War？　

（i）　In　modern　times；　countries　rarely　go　to　war　with　the　
goal　of　domination　or　conquest。　Rather；　they　e　
to　believe　that　they　are　protecting　interests　that　are　
important　to　their　survival　and　identity　
D。　Peace　Psychology　
1。　The　Peace　Psychology　Division　of　the　American　Psychological　
Association　works　to　promote　peace　in　the　world　
2。　Forms　of　Leadership　and　Government　
a）　Early　psychologists　focused　on　understanding　the　nature　of　
the　authoritarian　personality　behind　the　fascist　mentality；　
the　effects　of　propaganda　and　persuasive　munication；　
and　the　impact　of　group　atmosphere　and　leadership　styles　
on　group　members　that　developed　during　WW　II　

b）　Leaders　and　authorities　exert　considerable　power　on　group　
behavior　and　on　other　people　

c）　Kurt　Lewin　investigated　group　dynamics；　the　ways　in　which　
leaders　directly　influenced　their　followers　and　the　ways　in　
which　group　processes　changed　the　behavior　of　individuals　

（i）　Leadership　styles　
（a）　Autocratic　leaders：　made　all　decisions　and　work　
assignments；　but　did　not　participate　in　group　
activities　
（b）　Democratic　leaders：　encouraged　and　assisted　
group　decision…making　and　planning　
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（c）　Laissez…faire　leaders：　allowed　plete　freedom；　
with　little　leader　participation　
（ii）　Results　
（a）　Autocratic　leaders　group　members　were　
characterized　by　high　levels　of　aggression　and　
greater　hostility；　were　more　demanding　of　
attention；　were　more　likely　to　destroy　their　own　
property；　and　displayed　more　scapegoating　
behavior　
（b）　Democratic　leaders　group　members　worked　the　
most　steadily　and　were　most　efficient；　showed　
highest　levels　of　interest；　motivation；　and　
originality；　discontent　was　likely　to　be　expressed　
openly；　and　group　loyalty　increased　
（c）　Laissez…faire　leaders　group　members　were　the　
least　efficient；　did　the　least　amount　of　work　of　
poorest　quality；　and　goofed　off　
3。　Fostering　Contact　to　Facilitate　Conflict　Resolution　
a）　The　main　approach　of　resolving　conflict　is　the　same　one　
described　for　healing　other　types　of　prejudices。　People　must　
be　brought　together　in　cooperative　settings　that　can　foster　
mutual　trust　and　shared　goals　

b）　Interactive　problem　solving　promises　privacy　and　
confidentiality；　as　well　as　open　analytic　discussions。　It　also　
encourages　appropriate　expectations　

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DISCUSSION　QUESTIONS　

1。　Ask　your　class　how　they　think　that　they　would　have　behaved　if　they　were　participants　in　
the　Milgram　studies。　Most　students　will　respond　that　there　is　no　way　that　they　would　
have　shocked　the　helpless　learner。　Explain　to　them　that　if　they　persist　in　believing　this；　
they　have　missed　a　crucial　lesson　of　social　psychology：　that　“good”　people　are　often　no　
different　from　“bad”　people。　The　people　are　the　same；　it　is　the　situation　that　is　different。　
Destructive　behavior　often　results　when　normal　people　find　themselves　in　powerful　
situations。　The　situation　causes　behavior；　not　the　internal　characteristics　of　the　
individual。　The　good　members　of　your　class　cannot　realistically　expect　that　they　would　
behave　differently　in　bad　situations。　
2。　Have　members　of　your　class　give　examples　of　situations　in　which　they　felt　pressure　to　
behave　in　ways　that　they　felt　inappropriate。　How　did　they　resolve　the　situation？　What　
can　be　done　to　make　nonconformity　and　disobedience　a　viable　behavioral　option？　Are　
answers　to　this　question　likely　to　involve　situational　or　dispositional　changes？　Why？　
3。　Discuss　how　aggression　on　television；　in　movies；　and　in　other　media　influences　
aggression　in　real　life。　What　should；　or　could；　be　done　about　this　well…established　
relationship？　Is　censorship　a　viable　response？　Why　or　why　not？　What　about　self…
censorship？　Discuss　how　students　can　use　this　knowledge　to　reduce　the　likelihood　that　
they　themselves　will　be　aggressive。　
4。　Discuss　manipulation　that　might　lead　to　increased　altruism　in　society　as　a　whole。　Simply；　
what　could　be　done　to　make　our　world　more　helpful？　Are　dispositional　or　situational　
manipulates　likely　to　produce　more　significant　change？　Why？　Which　type　of　
manipulation　would　be　easier　to　implement？　
5。　Discuss　the　promise　that　social　psychology　and　psychology　in　general　hold　for　
improving　our　world。　One　tremendous　contribution　of　social　psychology　has　been　to　
demonstrate　that　we　do　not　need　to　change　every　single　individual　person。　Situational　
changes　can　be　made　that　affect　all　of　the　people　that　enter　them。　This　offers　society　a　
cost…effective　tool　for　addressing　social　problems。　To　what　problems　does　the　class　feel　
that　social　psychology　has　the　most　to　offer？　Why？　
6。　You　might　ask　students　to　voluntarily　discuss　if　they　have　ever　been　discriminated　
against　or　treated　in　some　other　prejudiced　manner。　Often；　those　who　engage　in　
discrimination　do　not　care　to　think　through　the　effects　their　behaviors　have　on　the　
individuals　against　whom　they　are　discriminating。　By　having　students　talk　about　their　
first…hand　experiences　of　receiving　such　treatment；　it　can　often　help　sensitize　other　
students　to　the　impact　of　prejudice　and　discrimination。　Racial；　ethnic；　and　sexual　
discrimination　all　take　a　heavy　toll　on　their　victims。　As　part　of　this　discussion；　you　might　
ask　those　who　are　sharing　their　experiences　to　discuss　the　emotional　impact　and　the　
effects　on　their　self…image　that　resulted　from　their　experiences。　
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SUPPLEMENTAL　LECTURE　MATERIAL　

Prejudice　

Prejudice　between　people　is　often　one　consequence　of　normative　processes　occurring　within　
groups。　Many　groups　exhibit　an　ethnocentric　attitude　that　postulates：　“My　group；　right　or　wrong；　
your　group；　rarely　right　and　probably　wrong　until　proven　otherwise。”　Group　membership　gives　
us　security；　status；　a　basis　for　reality　testing；　and　much　more　that　we　need　for　both　survival　and　
the　flowering　of　the　human　spirit。　Alternatively；　being　identified　as　a　member　of　a　certain　group　
can　also　bring　us　insecurity；　loss　of　self…esteem；　and　a　precarious　existence　if　others　with　power　
choose　to　label　our　group　as　inferior。　The　consequences　of　prejudice　take　many　forms；　but　
mon　to　all　of　them　is　a　less　humane　reaction　to　other　people　and　a　diversion　of　psychological　
energy　from　creative　to　destructive　directions。　

Prejudice　may　be　defined　as　a　cluster　of　learned　beliefs；　attitudes；　and　values　held　by　one　person　
about　others　that：　

。　Is　formed　on　the　basis　of　inplete　information　
。　Is　relatively　immune　to　contradictory　information　
。　Makes　a　categorical　assignment　of　individuals　to　certain　classes　or　groups　that　are　
（typically）　negatively　valued　
Prejudice　is　the　internal　state　or　psychological　set　to　react　in　a　biased　way　toward　members　of　
certain　groups。　Discrimination　is　the　constellation　of　behaviors　that　prejudice　may　give　rise　to。　

petency　knowledge　es　from　observing　the　consequences　of　your　actions；　what　you　
achieve；　and　how　your　abilities；　skills；　and　talents　are　realized。　Legitimacy　knowledge　es　
from　a　variety　of　cultural　sources　by　which　your　important　group　memberships…religious；　racial；　
ethnic；　sexual；　age　group；　and　others…are　recognized　as　acceptable　and　worthwhile。　Denial　of　the　
legitimacy　of　one’s　significant　group　identification　can　isolate　the　individual　from　those　who　
control　desired　social　and　material　reinforcers　within　a　culture。　In　addition；　the　reasons　given　to　
justify　rejection　of　the　group　and　the　personal　feelings　of　helplessness　that　result　from　arbitrary　
discrimination　can　have　a　negative　impact　on　performance；　lowering　even　petency…based　
esteem。　

Our　self…image　and　esteem　depend　on　many　variables。　These　inputs　can　be　summarized　as　
ing　from　two　sources：　

。　The　individual’s　appraisal　of　personal　worth　derived　from　social　and　physical　
feedback　about　his　or　her　petency　
。　Cultural　feedback　about　the　legitimacy　of　the　person’s　primary　reference　groups　
To　the　extent　one　accepts　and　is　dependent　on　the　values　of　the　reward　structure　of　a　cultural　
group　that　denies　the　legitimacy　of　one’s　own　subgroup；　one’s　self…esteem　is　likely　to　suffer。　
Legitimacy　is　often　denied　not　through　hostile；　obvious　acts　of　discrimination；　but　in　subtle　
patterns　of　prejudice　that　simply　ignore　one’s　existence。　

Once　you　adopt　the　derogatory　stereotype　about　yourself　as　a　valid　indicator　of　your　lack　of　
worth；　you　may　want　to　dissociate　yourself　from　the　despised　group；　to　“pass”　on　your　own　via　a　
name　change；　nose　job；　hair　straightening；　or　other　alteration　of　your　appearance；　as　well　as　by　
changing　your　friends　and　maybe　even　rejecting　your　family。　Such　a　prejudice…induced　reaction　
is　one　of　the　most　insidious　effects　of　prejudice。　It　turns　the　individual　not　only　against　his　or　her　
own　group；　but　against　the　“self’　as　well。　

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Categorical　rejection　of　the　individual　because　of　perceived　membership　in　some　unaccepted　
group　is　a　general　phenomenon　of　prejudice。　When　you　were　a　child；　did　friends　of　your　parents　
or　even　relatives　ignore　your　presence　after　they　said　the　usual；　“My；　how　you　have　grown”？　As　
an　adult；　have　you　ever　done　likewise　to　aged　people；　ignored　them　as　persons　because　they　are　
members　of　an　out…group？　Have　you　ever　treated　a　person　who　was　performing　a　service　for　
you　as　if　he　or　she　was　nothing　more　than　a　machine？　

A　Demonstration　of　Prejudice　

One　of　the　most　effective　demonstrations　of　how　easily　prejudiced　attitudes　may　be　formed；　
and　how　arbitrary　and　illogical　they　can　be；　came　from　a　third…grade　class　in　Riceville；　Iowa。　
The　teacher；　Jane　Elliott；　wanted　to　provide　her　students　from　this　all…white；　rural　munity　
with　the　experience　of　prejudice　and　discrimination　in　order　to　draw　from　it　the　implications　
of　its　seductive　appeal　and　devastating　consequences。　She　devised　a　remarkable　experiment；　
more　pelling　than　many　done　by　professional　psychologists。　

One　day；　blue…eyed　Ms。　Elliott　announced　to　her　class　of　9…year…olds　that　brown…eyed　people　
were　more　intelligent　and　better　people　than　those　with　blue　eyes。　The　blue…eyed　children；　
although　the　majority；　were　simply　told　t