心理学与生活-第94章

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although　the　majority；　were　simply　told　that　they　were　inferior　and　that　the　brown…eyed　
children　should　therefore　be　the　“ruling　class。”　Guidelines　were　laid　down　so　the　inferior　
group　would　“keep　their　place”　in　the　new　social　order。　They　were　to　sit　at　the　back　of　the　
room；　stay　at　the　end　of　the　line；　use　paper　cups　（instead　of　the　drinking　fountains）；　and　so　
on。　The　“superior”　students　received　extra　privileges；　such　as　extra　recess　time　for　work　well　
done。　

Within　minutes　the　blue…eyed　children　began　to　do　more　poorly　on　their　lessons　and　became　
depressed；　sullen；　and　angry。　They　described　themselves　as　“sad；”　“bad；”　“stupid；”　“dull；”　
“awful；”　“hard；”　“mean。”　One　boy　said　he　felt　like　a　“vegetable。”　Of　the　brown…eyed　
superiors；　the　teacher　reported；　“What　had　been　marvelously　cooperative；　thoughtful　
children　became　nasty；　vicious；　discriminating　little　third…graders　。　。　。　it　was　ghastly。”　

To　show　how　arbitrary　and　irrational　prejudice　and　its　rationalizations　are；　on　the　next　school　
day　the　teacher　told　the　class　that　she　had　erred；　that　it　was　really　the　blue…eyed　children　who　
were　superior　and　the　brown…eyed　ones　who　were　inferior。　The　brown…eyed　children　now　
switched　from　their　previously　“happy；”　“good；”　“sweet；”　“nice”　self…labels　to　derogatory　
ones　similar　to　those　used　the　day　before　by　the　blue…eyed。　Their　academic　performance　
deteriorated；　while　that　of　the　new　ruling　class　improved。　Old　friendship　patterns　between　
children　dissolved　and　were　replaced　with　hostility。　The　children　reacted　with　relief　and　
delight　at　the　end；　when　they　were　“debriefed”　and　learned　that　none　of　them　was　“inferior”　
to　others　（Elliott；　1977）。　

This　experiment；　recorded　in　the　film　Eye　of　the　Storm；　has　been　repeated　with　other　classes　and　
even　adult　groups　with　the　same　results。　In　each　case　the　assumption　of　power　by　one　group　over　
another　based　on　supposed　superiority　has　led　to　discriminatory　behavior；　disruption　in　the　
social　structure；　loss　of　self…esteem；　change　in　performance　by　the　“inferior”　members　in　
accordance　with　their　ascribed　status；　and　justification　by　the　superiors　for　the　pattern　of　
discrimination　sanctioned　by　the　“system。”　

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CHAPTER　18：　SOCIAL　PSYCHOLOGY；　SOCIETY；　AND　CULTURE　

Suggestions　for　Reducing　Racism　

The　difference　between　prejudice　and　racism　（broadly　defined）　is　a　difference　between　
individuals　and　systems。　While　prejudice　is　carried　in　the　minds　and　actions　of　individuals；　
racism　is　perpetuated　across　generations　by　laws　and　treaties；　group　norms；　and　customs。　It　is　
carried　by　newspapers；　textbooks；　and　other　munication　media。　

A　prevailing　racist　ideology　in　a　culture　constantly　provides　the　“informational”　support　and　
social　endorsement　for　discrimination　despite　personal　evidence　of　its　invalidity　and　injustice。　
Such　ideas　bee　unquestioned　assumptions　that　are　seen　not　as　biased　opinions　of　distorted　
values　but　as　self…evident　truths。　They　are　a　major　contributor　to　racial　differences　in　the　quality　
of　employment；　housing；　schooling；　health　care；　and　nutrition。　They　also　contribute　to　crime　and　
violence　and；　in　other　cultures　and　other　times；　have　led　to　“holy　wars。”　

Overt　Racism　

Under　the　banner　of　the　“white　man’s　burden；”　colonialists　exploited　the　resources　of　black　
Africa。　Native　Americans　were　deprived　of　their　land；　liberty；　and　ecological　niche　in　the　United　
States　by　newly　arrived　European　immigrants　whose　desires　for　wealth；　homesteads；　and　new　
frontiers　were　in　conflict　with　the　“menace　of　the　red　savages。”　The　“yellow　peril”　was　another　
journalistic　fiction；　used　to　set　people’s　thinking　against　Americans　of　Asian　ancestry。　After　their　
usefulness　was　over　as　laborers　on　the　railroads；　in　the　mines；　and　other　manual　jobs；　the　press　
and　labor　groups　mounted　campaigns　to　deport　the　Chinese；　and　to　deprive　both　Chinese　and　
Japanese　immigrants　of　the　rights　and　privileges　of　American　citizenship。　Over　100；000　Japanese　
Americans　were　put　into　concentration　camps　in　the　Western　states　during　World　War　II。　Their　
property　was　sold　at　small　return；　and　millions　of　dollars　were　held　by　the　government　and　used　
by　American　bankers　for　30　years　without　interest。　Nothing　parable　was　done　to　those　of　
German　or　Italian　ancestry；　America’s　other　two　enemies　during　that　same　war。　

When　a　group　bees　the　target　of　prejudice　and　discrimination；　it　is　socially　segregated；　
preventing　normal　interchange　and　blocking　or　destroying　channels　of　munication。　This　
isolation；　in　turn；　allows　rumors　and　stereotypes　to　go　unchecked；　fantasies　to　surface　and　grow；　
and　the　“strangeness”　of　the　group；　real　and　fancied；　to　increase　over　time。　The　isolation　of　
Native　Americans　on　reservations　and　the　racially　segregated　housing　patterns　in　our　cities　
increase　the　alienation　between　groups　and　prevent　both　reality　checks　and　causal　interaction。　

Covert　Racism　

The　public　opinion　poll　is　one　way　of　assessing　the　extent　of　racism　in　a　society。　If　you　can　
believe　what　people　say；　there　is　a　decreasing　amount　of　negative　stereotyping　and　adverse　
attitudes　of　whites　toward　African　Americans　in　the　United　States。　Americans　seem　to　be　
changing　their　attitudes　about　racial　integration。　

Are　overt　expressions　of　prejudice　diminishing　or　merely　being　suppressed？　Measures　of　covert　
racial　prejudice　use　content　analysis　of　public　media　to　discern　if　the　same　old　attitudes　are　still　
there；　but　under　wraps。　One　study　deserves　to　be　highlighted　for　the　subtle　form　of　covert　racism　
it　reveals；　so　subtle　that　you　have　probably　been　exposed　to　it　and　never　realized　its　impact　on　
your　thinking。　

A　blind　psychology　professor；　Raymond　Rainville；　found　that　while　listening　to　live　broadcasts　
of　professional　football　games　he　was　able　to　identify　the　race　of　the　players　although　it　was　
never　mentioned。　Rainville　reasoned　that　the　white　announcers　were　municating　messages　

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about　basic　racial　differences；　perhaps　at　an　unconscious　level。　Transcripts　of　the　televised　
mentaries　of　sixteen　NFL　games　were　analyzed　according　to　a　variety　of　content　categories。　
The　researchers　pared　descriptions　of　an　African　American　and　a　white　player　of　the　same　
position　who　had　parable　performance　statistics；　such　as　running　backs　O。　J。　Simpson　and　
Larry　Csonka。　Players　were　designated　as　“Smith”　or　“Jones；”　and　names　of　teams；　teammates；　
and　cities　were　disguised。　Three　independent　raters　were　able　to　identify　each　player　correctly　as　
African　American　or　white　on　1　of　25　rating　categories；　

All　differences　found　were　favorable　to　whites　and　unfavorable　to　African　Americans。　Whites　
were　significantly　more　often：　

。　Recipients　of　sympathy；　positive　focus；　and　play…related　praise　
。　Described　as　executors　of　aggression　
。　Credited　with　positive　cognitive　and　physical　attributes。　
African　Americans　were　more　often　described　as：　

。　Being　the　recipients　of　aggression　
。　Having　a　negative；　nonprofessional　record；　such　as　problems　in　college　or　with　the　
police　（Rainville　&　McCormick；　1977）　
All　of　these　players　were　exceptional　athletes；　yet　the　white　players　were　described　as　active　
causal　agents　on　the　field　and　the　African　American　players　as　passive　objects　moved　by　external　
forces。　

Reducing　Racism　

Once　established；　prejudice　and　racism　are　relatively　resistant　to　extinction　because　of　the　several　
needs　they　may　serve　for　the　individuals　and　the　group；　and　the　many　conditions　that　may　
encourage　and　maintain　existing　attitudes。　Although　progress　has　been　made　in　reducing　
prejudice　and　racism；　a　tremendous　amount　of　progress　remains　to　be　acplished。　

Here　are　some　techniques　we　can　use　to　reduce　racism：　

。　Change　actions：　Research　has　shown　that　contact　between　antagonistic　groups　can　
promote　better　intergroup　relations　and　lessen　existing　hostilities。　Mere　exposure；　
however；　does　not　help　and　is　more　likely　to　intensify　existing　attitudes。　Changes　as　a　
result　of　contact　are　most　likely　to　occur　when　the　contact　is　rewarding　rather　than　
thwarting；　when　a　mutual　interest　or　goal　is　served；　when　status　is　equal；　and　when　the　
participants　perceive　that　the　contact　was　the　result　of　their　own　choice。　
。　Change　the　rules　and　the　reinforcements：　Although　“righteousness　cannot　be　legislated；”　a　
new　law　or　regulation　provides　a　new　system　of　rewards　and　punishments　and　can　
thereby　create　a　new　social　norm　that　then　bees　a　powerful　influence　on　individuals　
to　conform　to　the　new　pattern。　The　same　results　may　be　achieved　by　more　informal　
agreements　to　change　“ground　rules。”　
。　Change　the　self…image　of　victims　of　prejudice：　Young　people　who　are　targets　of　prejudice　may　
be　“inoculated”　against　its　crippling　psychological　effects　and　thus　be　helped　to　develop　
and　demonstrate　their　real　potentials　if　they　establish　a　sense　of　pride　in　their　origins；　
history；　and　group　identity。　The　“Black　is　beautiful”　slogan　represents　an　effective　

instance　of　this　approach；　as　do　“Gray　Power”　and　“Gay　Pride。”　

。　Change　petitive　encounters　to　cooperative　ones：　Environments　that　foster　interpersonal　
petition　are　often　breeding　grounds　for　envy；　jealousy；　hostility；　and　self…derogation。　
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By　creating　conditions　in　which　students　must　depend　on　one　another　for　learning　
required　material；　teachers　can　help　overe　some　interracial　conflicts　that　exist　in　
traditional　classrooms。　When　every　member’s　contribution　is　equally　valuable；　students　
feel　like　partners　rather　than　petitors；　and　those　in　desegregated　settings　can　discover　
the　advantages　of　sharing　knowledge　and　friendship　with　“equal　and　interdependent”　
peers…regardless　of　race；　creed；　or　sex。　

In…Groups；　Out…Groups；　and　Groupthink　

The　groupthink　hypothesis　proposes　that　members　of　small　cohesive　units　have　a　tendency　to　
maintain　esprit　de　corps　through　the　unconscious　development　of　shared　illusions　and　related　
norms。　These　norms　subsequently　interfere　with　the　group’s　critical　thinking　and　reality　testing　
（Janis；　1972）。　The　groupthink　phenomenon　offers　an　exemplar　of　the　in…group/out…group；　us…
against…them　scenario。　It　is　an　annoying　phenomenon　at　best；　and　a　dangerous　one　at　worst。　
Consider　the　philosophies　of　a　small　group；　caught　up　in　the　illusion　of　its　own　invulnerability；　
its　excluding　any　ideas　from　outside　the　group；　and　controlled　by　leadership　tactics　that　subtly　
sanction　members　who　dare　to　suggest　alternative　courses　of　action　or　raise　critical　issues。　The　
guiding　premise　of　groupthink　is；　“If　our　leader　and　everyone　else　in　our　group　decides　that　it　is　
okay；　the　plan　is　bound　to　succeed。　Even　if　it　is　quite　risky；　luck　will　be　on　our　side。”　（Janis；　1972；　
in　Frost；　Mitchell；　&　Nord；　1982；　p。　350）。　

Groupthink　is　the　epitome　of　the　“my…mind…is…made…up；　don’t…confuse…me…with…facts”　mentality。　
This　mentality　is　carefully　guarded　by　all　members　of　the　group。　This　collective　behavior　tends　to　
surface　in　times　of　crisis　and　effectively　closes　off　input　from　any　source　outside　the　group。　
Reli