心理学与生活-第95章
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surface in times of crisis and effectively closes off input from any source outside the group。
Reliance of the group on consensual validation replaces critical thinking by any one member；
reality testing is shunned。 Members of the group share an illusion of unanimity； with the blanket
assumption that all members concur in the position of the group’s leader（s）； creating an
atmosphere of assumed consensus of thought。
Janis （1972） offered eight characteristics of the groupthink mentality。
1。 Illusion of invulnerability： Overemphasis of group strengths； and exaggeration of the
capacity to plete a risky course of action。
2。 Rationalization of negative information： Collective discounting and rationalization of
warnings of imminent danger resulting from pursuit of a specific course of action。
3。 Stereotyping of out…group： Sharing of distorted perceptions of rivals as being：
Too weak or stupid to pose a viable threat
Too stupid to negotiate with
4。 Assumption of morality： A belief that the inherent morality of the group and its objectives
preclude any requirement to question the morality of methods employed to attain goals。
5。 Self…censorship： Individual members’ doubts and misgivings are not expressed。
6。 Illusion of unanimity： Lack of dissent is interpreted by the group as concurrence in
philosophies。
7。 Mindguarding： Certain members of the group protect the group from negative
information by suppressing the information pletely。
8。 Direct social pressure： Members apply social pressure to discourage expressions of doubts
or criticism of the group’s illusions； stereotypes； or judgments。
371
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
Cults
In expanding the text’s discussion of cults； you might review the types of people who are most
monly recruited by cults。 They are often adolescents and young adults who are somewhat
idealistic； so that they are more susceptible to the cult’s utopian message。 They are likely to be
people who are psychologically vulnerable in that they are lonely； depressed； feeling rejected；
lost； hopeless； or desperate in some way。 They may have had long…term problems or may have
suffered a temporary setback in their life； but they are vulnerable at that moment and the cult
promises a new direction or hope that will make them feel loved； appreciated； and special again。
They may be searching for some sense of direction in their lives or someone to blame for their
problems； and often cults seemingly provide them with both。 No matter what the specific
circumstances； as the text points out； once someone is under the control of a cult； the techniques
they use to manipulate the person’s attitudes and behaviors can be extremely powerful。 Which is
why it is so important for students to be aware of how cults operate before they are ever tempted
to join one。
BIOLOGHAPHICAL PROFILES
Solomon Asch （1907—1996）
Solomon Asch obtained his Ph。D。 at Columbia University in 1932。 He subsequently taught at the
New School for Social Research in New York City and at Rutgers University。 Asch’s research and
conceptual orientation in social psychology were influenced strongly by the Gestalt school；
particularly as represented in the writings of his close friend； Max Wertheimer。 Asch is best
known for his pioneering research on conformity and the effects of group pressure on the
behavior of the individual。 Among his major works is the classic text Social Psychology； published
in 1952。
Stanley Milgram （1933—1984）
Stanley Milgram was born in New York City； received his Ph。D。 from Harvard in 1960； and
taught briefly at Yale； before returning to Harvard in 1963 as the Executive Director of the
parative International Program in the Department of Social Relations。 Milgram is well
known for his series of experiments on obedience to authority； which he conducted during the
early 1960s。 This controversial research brought him both vehement criticism and praise；
including the American Association for the Advancement of Science’s Socio…Psychology Prize in
1965。 He became distinguished professor at City University of New York in 1980。 His works
include Obedience to Authority （1974） and the award…winning short film； The City and the Self
（1974）。
Muzafer Sherif （1906—1988）
Muzafer Sherif obtained his masters degree at Istanbul University； Turkey。 After winning a
fellowship abroad； he traveled to Harvard to study； primarily because of William James’ legacy。
He obtained a second master’s degree at Harvard； then went to Columbia University； where he
conducted his dissertation； classic research on the autokinetic effect。 While at the University of
Oklahoma from 1949 to 1965； he investigated the effects of petition on the emergence of
stereotypes and intergroup hostility； and the ameliorative effects of intergroup cooperation。 With
his wife； Carolyn； Sherif examined social judgments and attitudes； and the natural behavior of
adolescents in groups。 From 1965 to 1972； he taught at Penn State University。
372
CHAPTER 18： SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY； SOCIETY； AND CULTURE
373
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING
Aronson； E。 （1994）。 The Social Animal； 7th Ed。 New York； W。 H。 Freeman。 A narrative approach to
social psychology。 This classic presents theory and research in an interesting and very
relevant manner。 Topics covered include prejudice； propaganda； war； alienation； aggression；
unrest； and political upheaval。
Deaux； K。； & Wrightsman； L。 （1988）。 Social Psychology； 5th Ed。 Pacific Grove； CA： Brooks/Cole。 A
basic text with wide coverage。 Research…oriented； with emphasis on applications of social
psychology。
Evans； R。 （1980）。 The Making of Social Psychology： Discussions with Creative Contributors。 New York：
Gardner Press。 A collection of Evans’ discussions with nineteen significant contributors to the
field of social psychology； and is an excellent reference for both biographical and historical
material。
Lewin； K。 （1951）。 Field Theory in Social Science： Selected Theoretical Papers。 Edited by Dorwin
Cartwright。 New York： Harpers。 A classic text by the founder of the discipline of social
psychology。
Markus； H。； & Kitayama； S。 （1991）。 Culture and the Self。 Implications for Cognition； Emotion； and
Motivation。 Psychological Review； 98（2）； 224…253。 Explores the possibility that concepts of “self’
may differ cross…culturally。 Presents research that suggests that Asia cultures foster an
“interdependent’ conception of self； while Western cultures foster an “independent”
conception of self
Milgram； S。 （1974）。 Obedience to Authority。 New York： Harper & Row。 Milgram presents his ideas
on the topic of obedience and describes his famous research involving the shocking machine。
Reber； A。 S。 （1985）。 The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology。 London： The Penguin Group。 A concise；
cogent dictionary of even the most obscure psychological terms。
Ross； L。； & Nisbett； R。 （1991）。 The Person and the Situation： Perspectives of Social Psychology。 New
York： McGraw…Hill。 An excellent summary and review of the field of social psychology by
two leading researchers。 Presents the plex and often contradictory findings of social
psychology in a manner easily understood by all。
Spiegel； D。； Bloom； J。； Kraemer； H。； & Gottheil； E。 （1994）。 Effect of Psychosocial Treatment on Survival
of Patients with Metastatic Breast Cancer。 In Psychosocial Processes and Health： A Reader； 468…477。
Cambridge： Cambridge University Press。 Presents research that suggests participating in
social support groups can dramatically increase length of survival of women with metastatic
breast cancer。 Provides a dramatic example of how social factors can influence biological
ones。
Steele； C。 （1997）。 A Threat in the Air： How Stereotypes Shape Intellectual Identity and Performance。
American Psychologist； 52（6）； 613…629。 Introduces “stereotype threat’ and discusses its
influence on the performance of stereotyped individuals。 Stereotype threat is a phenomenon
in which the fear of confirming a stereotype leads to anxiety that actually causes the
fulfillment of the stereotype。 It is used to explain lower academic performance by stereotyped
group pared to nonstereotyped groups。
Tesser； A。 （1995）。 Advanced Social Psychology。 New York： McGraw…Hill。 An excellent introduction
to the field of social psychology。 Individual chapters are written by leading researchers in
different areas of social psychology。
374
CHAPTER 18： SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY； SOCIETY； AND CULTURE
DISCOVERING PSYCHOLOGY
PROGRAM 17： SEX AND GENDER
Overview
The ways in which males and females are similar and different； and how sex roles reflect
social values and psychological knowledge。
Key Issues
How sex hormones affect gender behavior in rats； how the environment affects gender roles；
reasons for self…segregation by gender among preschool children； artificial limits imposed on
female gender roles； relationship between gender roles and depression； and how gender
stereotypes in advertisements affect behavior。
Demonstrations
Sex differences in the play behavior of baby rats。
Self…segregation by gender in a preschool。
Socialization differences in gender…appropriate behavior and dress。
Interviews
Developmental neuroscientist Michael Meaney studies why male rats are more apt to engage
in rough…and…tumble play； while female rats are consistently less aggressive and less
physical。
Eleanor Maccoby examines why children tend to socialize with other children of the same
sex。
Jean Block examines the differences in the socialization of male and female children and the
effects on their relationships with other children of the same and opposite sex。
PROGRAM 20： CONSTRUCTING SOCIAL REALITY
Overview
The factors that contribute to our interpretation of reality and how understanding the
psychological processes that govern our behavior may help us to bee more empathetic
and independent members of society。
Key Issues
Power of cognitive control； the Pygmalion effect； how teachers’ expectations affect children’s
test scores； the development of prejudice in a grammar school classroom； and the principle of
pliance as illustrated in television ads。
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
Demonstrations
The self…fulfilling prophecy study； or the Pygmalion effect。
The principles of pliance illustrated with actual television advertisements。
Jane Elliot’s blue…eyed versus brown…eyed case study。
Students’ enhanced self…esteem and performance due to the jigsaw classroom。
New Interview
Steven Hassan looks at the ways cults use mind control methods to reshape people’s identity
and reconstruct the way they perceive reality。
Interviews
Grammar school teacher Jane Elliot divides her classroom into a superior blue…eyed group
and an inferior brown…eyed group to study the development and nature of prejudice。
Robert Rosenthal studies how teachers’ expectations can affect children’s test scores。
Elliot Aronson and Alex Gonzalez examine how cooperation rather than petition changes
the way students
