心理学与生活-第98章

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change　in　performance。　

In　short；　it　seems　that　all　the　adages　about　“putting　your　best　foot　forward”　are　right。　Repairing　the　
damages　of　a　first　impression　gone　awry　is　one　tough　assignment。　（See　Jones　et　al。；　1972；　and　Jellison　&　
Blanche；　1976。）　

You　might　discuss　research　that　shows　how　people　who　are　randomly　assigned　to　ask　tough　questions　are　
automatically　perceived　as　more　knowledgeable　than　those　randomly　assigned　to　answer　them。　This　
research　suggests　that　people　fail　to　discount　adequately　for　the　constraints　that　roles　impose　on　behavior。　
（See　Ross；　Amabile　&　Steinmetz；　1977。）　

ADDITIONAL　RESOURCES　

Jellison；　J。　M。；　&　Blanche；　J。　G。　（1976）。　The　Effects　of　Pattern　of　Performance　and　Order　of　Presentation　on　Recall　
and　Attribution　of　Ability。　Personality　and　Social　Psychology　Bulletin　2；　47…50。　
Jones；　E。　E。；　&　Pittman；　L。　（1982）。　Toward　a　prehensive　Theory　of　Self…Presentation。　In　J。　Suls　（Ed。）；　The　Self　in　
Social　Interaction　（Vol。　1）。　Hillsdale；　NJ：　Erlbaum。　
Ross；　L。；　Amabile；　T。；　&　Steinmetz；　J。　（1977）。　Social　Rules；　Social　Control　and　Biases　in　the　Social　Perception　
Process。　Journal　of　Personality　and　Social　Psychology；　37；　485…494。　
Schlenker；　B。　R。　（1980）。　Impression　Management。　The　Self…Concept　Social　Identity　and　Interpersonal　Relations。　
Monterey；　CA：　Brooks/Cole。　
Snyder；　M。；　&　Swann；　W。　B。；　Jr。；　（1978）。　When　Actions　Reflect　Attitudes：　The　Politics　of　Impression　Management。　
Journal　of　Personality　and　Social　Psychology；　36；　1202…1212。　

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COPING　WITH　THE　ENVIRONMENT　WHILE　BEING　
TEMPORARILY　BLIND　

This　is　a　special　out…of…class　assignment　that　may　be　given　for　extra　credit　or　used　as　the　basis　for　class　
discussion；　at　the　instructor’s　discretion。　

OBJECTIVES　

1。　To　give　students　the　opportunity　of　having　the　unique　sensory…perceptual　experience　of　not　being　
sighted　for　some　period　of　time　（several　hours　to　one　day）。　
2。　To　pare　anticipated　reactions　of　students　with　their　actual　experiences。　
3。　To　demonstrate　the　value　of　experiential　learning。　
OVERVIEW　

We　all　wonder　from　time　to　time　what　life　would　be　like　or　how　we　might　be　different　if　some　sensory　
attribute　we　value　and　rely　on　were　suddenly　changed：　such　as　our　hearing；　sense　of　smell；　taste；　or　feel；　or　
vision。　Here　is　a　way　for　students　to　test　the　consequences　of　one　such　loss…temporary　blindness。　

GENERAL　INTRODUCTION　

One　of　the　primary　research　strategies　for　studying　the　operation　of　psychological　and　physiological　
processes　involved　in　well…learned；　highly　practiced；　or　apparently　inborn　behaviors　is　to　disrupt　them。　
Such　behaviors；　precisely　because　they　usually　function　so　well；　are　taken　for　granted　and　are　therefore　not　
subjected　to　the　scientific　scrutiny　and　analysis　they　may　deserve。　Investigation　of　the　variables　and　
processes　responsible　for　maintaining　normal　functioning　often　proceeds　by　creating　conditions　that　
prevent；　block；　or　modify　the　occurrence　of　the　behavior　pattern；　subject　it　to　unusual　stress；　or　cause　it　to　be　
manifested　in　a　deviant　or　abnormal　form。　

Sometimes　such　“experimental　manipulations”　are　produced　by　naturally　existing　conditions…as　with　
genetic　mutations；　birth　defects；　accidents；　marked　environmental　changes；　or　being　reared　in　a　situation　
that　is　atypical　for　other　members　of　a　given；　parable　species　or　culture。　For　example；　brain　functioning　
was　initially　studied　through　observation　of　what　specific　behavioral　functions　were　lost　（temporarily　or　
permanently）　when　tumors　were　removed　from　the　brains　of　epileptics　or　when　people　suffered　destruction　
of　brain　tissue　from　poisons；　diseases；　or　physical　damage　in　accidents　or　warfare。　To　study　the　relative　
effects　of　heredity　and　environment　on　behavior；　psychologists　originally　resorted　to　intensive　analysis　of　
feral　children　who　were　found　abandoned　in　the　wilderness；　allegedly　reared　by　animals。　

On　a　more　personal　level；　you　may　have　bee　aware　of　the　phenomenon　of　sleep　only　when　you　had　
insomnia；　or　you　may　have　bee　sensitized　to　the　normally　effortless　process　of　inhaling　oxygen　and　
exhaling　carbon　dioxide　when　you　had　asthma；　worked　at　high　altitudes；　or　lived　in　a　smog…filled　city。　

While　psychologists　do　study　the　consequences　of　natural　disturbance　of　normal　functions；　they　prefer　to　
discover　techniques　by　which　such　disturbances　can　be　experimentally　induced　under　controlled　
observational　conditions…and　then　reversed。　Thus；　the　individual’s　behavior　can　be　studied　before　the　
intervention；　while　the　disruption　is　occurring；　and　then　again　after　the　original　conditions　are　restored。　For　
example；　to　study　brain　functions；　physiologists　can　apply　small　amounts　of　electric　current　to　brain　sites　
and　record　temporary　alterations　in　functions　that　persist　only　as　long　as　the　stimulation　is　continued。　
Similarly；　it　has　been　shown；　by　delaying　auditory　feedback　with　special　apparatus；　how　much　we　depend　
on　receiving　immediate　auditory　feedback　for　talking　in　a　coherent；　integrated　fashion。　

Perhaps　the　most　important　sense　you　possess　is　one　you　take　most　for　granted　because　of　the　usually　
reliable　and　efficient　way　in　which　it　operates。　For　sighted　people；　vision　is　not　a　gift　but　a　given。　We　are　
rarely　aware　of　the　plex　set　of　visual　cues　we　depend　on　in　virtually　every　activity　we　carry　out。　

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Moreover；　reliance　on　visual　cues　makes　us　less　dependent　upon　the　cues　provided　by　our　other　senses。　
Finally；　with　vision　es　a　measure　of　independence–we　can　get　where　we　want；　when　we　want；　without　
help　from　others。　But　suppose　you　suddenly　lost　the　use　of　your　eyesight？　What　changes　would　occur？　
What　things　would　you　bee　aware　of　that　are　normally　irrelevant　or　not　consciously　attended　to？　How　
would　you　feel　about　having　to　depend　on　others　for　help　in　dressing　（or　selecting　your　wardrobe）；　reading；　
and　even　just　moving　about？　

METHOD　

Subjects：　You　will　serve　as　your　own　subject。　Ideally；　you　should　perform　this　research　with　a　partner　from　your　class　
or　a　close　friend。　It　would　increase　the　value　of　the　experience　for　you　to　serve　both　as　subject　and　as　guide　to　
another　person。　You　can　pare　notes　as　to　the　similarities　in　your　experiences　as　well　as　discover　differences。　
Apparatus：　Gauze　pads　and　bandage；　an　Ace　elastic　bandage；　sunglasses；　long　stick　or　cane；　and　a　tape　recorder；　if　
possible。　
Procedure：　The　research　task　presented　to　you　is　to　be　blind　for　a　day。　Blindfold　yourself　when　you　go　to　sleep　so　
you　will　awaken　without　the　use　of　your　sight　and　do　not　remove　the　blindfold　until　the　following　evening。　It　is　
advisable　to　put　gauze　pads　over　your　eyes；　then　gauze　bandage　or　some　similar　material　to　hold　the　pads　in　place；　
and　perhaps　an　Ace　elastic　bandage　on　top。　Sunglasses　might　help　you　look　less　conspicuous。　Be　sure　to　make　the　
necessary　arrangements　in　advance　for　how　you　will　carry　out　the　“normal”　day’s　activities。　Also；　do　not　take　any　
chances　in　crossing　streets　or　other　danger　spots　without　prearranged　assistance。　The　use　of　a　long　stick　（or　cane）　
will　be　necessary　to　detect　obstacles　in　your　path。　
If　you　cannot　set　aside　an　entire　day　for　this　research；　it　would　still　be　valuable　to　do　so　for　even　part　of　a　day；　during　
your　morning　or　afternoon　classes；　or　in　the　evening　from　dinner　until　bedtime。　

GUIDE　TO　ANALYSIS　

1。　How　do　you　imagine　you　will　react　to　this　experience　of　perceiving　your　world　without　being　able　
to　rely　on　your　visual　sense？　Before　you　begin；　think　about　those　aspects　of　the　situation　that　will　
be　difficult　or　easy　to　adjust　to。　In　what　areas　of　functioning　do　you　anticipate　the　experience　will　
have　its　biggest　impact　on　you？　Indicate　these　predictions　on　the　table　provided。　When　you　have　
pleted　the　exercise；　pare　your　actual　and　anticipated　experiences。　
2。　Keep　a　mental　record　of　your　thoughts　and　feelings　and　the　reactions　of　others　to　your　“handicap。”　
At　several　times　throughout　the　study；　write　out　your　experiences　（without　removing　your　blinders）；　
or　dictate　them　to　your　partner　or　into　a　portable　tape　recorder。　
3　。　While　doing　your　research；　also　note　the　following：　
。　Do　you　have　any　unexpected　difficulties　in　understanding　other　people　or　in　expressing　
your　thoughts　to　them？　
。　Does　your　food　taste　any　different？　
。　Is　it　difficult　to　eat？　
。　Do　right　angles　bee　important　to　you　as　navigation　signs？　Why？　Why　do　curved　
sidewalks　and　other　curves　pose　a　special　problem？　
。　How　do　you　utilize　and　integrate　sound；　touch；　smell；　and　other　sensory　feedback　to　
pensate　for　your　visual　loss？　
。　Are　you　more　or　less　sensitive　to　interpersonal　relations？　
。　What　have　you　learned　about　yourself　that　you　did　not　know　or　fully　appreciate　before？　
4。　When　it　is　all　over；　how　does　it　feel　to　know　you　have　the　power　to　regain　your　sight　at　will？　
Imagine　what　it　would　be　like　if　you　could　not　reverse　the　effect—if　you　were　blind　not　merely　for　a　
day！　Now　consider　whether　the　environment　you　operate　in　regularly　has　made　any　design　
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concessions　to　acmodate　students　who　are　blind　or　handicapped　in　some　other　way。　Can　you　
identify　specific　features　of　environmental　design　that　might　be　changed　to　make　the　life　space　more　
livable　for　those　who　cannot　rely　on　all　their　senses　or　normal　motor　ability？　Would　it　be　possible　
to　introduce　your　suggestions　for　such　change　to　the　administration　of　your　school　or　to　those　in　
charge　of　the　life…space　unit　in　which　you　conducted　your　personal　experiments？　

5。　pare　your　reactions　to　those　of　other　students　who　have　done　this　exercise。　What　is　the　value　of　
experiential　learning？　
6。　What　are　the　psychological　differences　between　being　without　sight　versus　being　without　hearing？　
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parison　of　Anticipated　&　Actual　Reactions　to　Being　Blind　for　a　
Day　

Anticipated　After　Experience　
Date：　Date：　
Time：　Time：　
Total　Blind　Time：　
1。　Most　difficult　motor　skill　or　
response　to　make　
2。　Sense　you　will　rely　on　most　
3。　How　long　it　will　take　to　adjust　
to　the　situation　to　function　
appropriately　
4。　What；　if　any；　will　be　the　
major　problem　or　difficulty　
in：　
a）　dressing　
b）　eating　
c）　attending　class　
d）　engaging　in　a　hobby　or　
favorite　recreation　
e）　social　relations　
5。　Sources　of　anxiety　
6。　Sources　of　gratification　

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REACTION　TIMES　CAN　BE　REVEALING　

OBJECTIVES　

1。　To　sensitize　students　to　the　needs　for　experimental　controls　that　help　minimize　experimenter　bias。　
2。　To　illustrate　that　without　proper　controls　an　experimental　procedure　can　yield　false　conclusions。　
3。　To　encourage　students　to　design　an　experiment　that　answers　the　question；　“Which　sex　has　the　
faster　reaction　time？”　
4。　To　generate　an　operational　definition　of　reaction　time　without　the　use　of　a　clock。　
5。　To　have　some　fun　while　demonstrating　some　important　principles　of　research　methodology。　
OVERVIEW　

The　“experiment”　is　the　most　powerful　analytical　tool　used　in　science。　Cause…effect　relationships　can　be　
established　only　using　well…controlled　experiments。　Psychologists　employ　this　tool　in　the　investigation　of　
virtually　all　aspects　of　behavior；　including　perception；　learning；　memory；　cognition；　motivatio