minerva’s owl-第1章

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“Minerva’s　owl　begins　its　flight　only　in　the　gathering　dusk”。　Hegel　worte　in　reference　to　the　crystallization　of　culture　achieved　in　major　calssical　writings　in　the　period　that　saw　the　decline　and　fall　of　Grecian　civilization。　The　richness　of　that　culture；　its　uniqueness；　and　its　influence　on　the　history　of　the　West　suggest　that　the　flight　began　not　only　for　the　dusk　of　Grecian　civilization　but　also　for　the　civilization　of　the　West。

I　have　attempted　to　suggest　that　Western　civilization　has　been　profoundly　influenced　by　munication　and　that　marked　changes　in　munications　have　had　important　implications。　Briefly　this　address　is　divided　into　the　following　periods　in　relation　to　media　of　municaiton：　clay；　the　stylus；　and　cuneiform　script　from　the　beginnings　of　civilization　in　Mesopotamia；　papyrus；　the　brush；　and　hieroglyphics　and　hieratic　to　the　Graeco…Roman　period；　and　the　reed　pen　and　the　alphabet　to　the　retreat　of　the　Empire　from　the　West；　parchment　and　the　pen　to　the　tenth　century　or　the　dark　ages：　and　overlapping　with　paper；　the　latter　being　more　important　with　the　invention　of　printing；　paper　and　the　brush　in　China；　and　paper　and　the　pen　in　Europe　before　the　invention　of　printing　or　the　Renaissance；　paper　and　the　printing　press　under　handicraft　methods　to　the　beginning　of　the　nineteenth　century；　or　from　the　Reformation　to　the　printing　press　since　the　beginning　of　the　nineteenth　century　to　paper　manufactured　from　wood　in　the　second　half　of　the　century；　celluloid　in　the　growth　of　the　cinema；　and　finally　the　radio　in　the　second　quarter　of　the　present　century。　In　each　period　I　have　attempted　to　trace　the　implications　of　the　media　of　munication　ofr　the　character　of　knowledge　and　to　suggest　that　a　monopoly　or　an　oligopoly　of　knowledge　is　built　up　to　the　point　that　equilibrium　is　disturbed。

An　oral　tradition　implies　freshness　and　elasticity　but　students　of　anthropology　have　pointed　to　the　binding　character　of　custom　in　primitive　cultures。　A　plex　system　of　writing　bees　the　possession　of　a　special　class　and　tends　to　support　aristocracies。　A　simple　flexible　system　of　writing　admits　of　adaptation　to　the　vernacular　but　slowness　of　adaptation　facilitates　monopolies　of　knowledge　and　hierarchies。　Reading　in　contrast　with　writing　implies　a　passive　recognition　of　the　power　of　writing。　Inventions　in　municaiton　pel　realignments　in　the　monopoly　or　the　oligopoly　of　knowledge。　A　monopoly　of　knowledge　incidental　to　specialized　skill　in　writing　which　weakens　contact　with　the　vernacular　will　eventually　be　broken　down　by　force。　In　the　words　of　Hume：”　As　force　is　always　on　the　side　of　the　governed；　the　governors　have　nothing　to　support　them　but　opinion。　It　is；　therefore；　on　opinion　that　government　is　founded；　and　this　maxim　extends　to　the　most　despotic　and　the　most　military　governments　as　well　as　to　the　most　free　and　most　popular。”

The　relation　of　monopolies　of　knowledge　to　organized　force　is　evident　in　the　political　and　military　histories　of　civilization。　An　interest　in　learning　assumes　a　stable　society　in　which　organized　force　is　sufficiently　powerful　to　provide　sustained　protection。　Concentration　on　learning　implies　a　written　tradition　and　introduces　monopolistic　elements　in　culture　which　are　followed　by　rigidities　and　involve　lack　of　contact　with　the　oral　tradition　and　the　vernacular。　“Perhaps　in　a　very　real　sense；　a　great　institution　is　the　tomb　of　the　founder。”　“Most　organizations　appear　as　bodies　founded　for　the　painless　extinction　fo　ideas　of　the　founder。”　“To　the　founder　of　a　school；　everything　may　be　forgiven；　except　his　school。”　This　change　is　acpanied　by　a　weakening　of　the　relations　between　organized　force　and　the　vernacular　and　collapse　in　the　face　of　technological　change　which　has　taken　place　in　marginal　regions　which　have　escaped　the　influence　of　a　monopoly　of　knowledge。　On　the　capture　of　Athens　by　the　Goths　in　267　A。D。　they　are　reported　to　have　said；　“Let　us　leave　the　Greeks　these　books　for　they　make　them　so　effeminate　and　unwarlike。”

With　a　weakening　of　protection　of　organized　force；　scholars　put　forth　greater　efforts　and　in　a　sense　the　flowering　of　the　culture　es　before　its　collapse。　Minerva’s　owl　begins　its　flight　in　the　gathering　dusk　not　only　from　classical　Greece　but　in　turn　from　Alexandria；　from　Rome；　form　Constantinople；　from　the　republican　cities　of　Italy；　from　France；　from　Holland；　and　from　Germany。　It　has　been　said　of　the　Byzantine　Empire　that　“on　the　eve　of　her　definite　ruin；　all　Hellas　was　reassembling　her　intellectual　energy　to　throw　a　last　splendid　glow”。　…　“The　perishing　Empire　of　the　fourteenth　and　fifteenth　centuries；　especially　the　city　of　Constantinople；　was　a　centre　of　ardent　culture；　both　intellectual　and　artistic。”　In　the　regions　to　which　Minerva’s　owl　takes　flight　the　success　of　organized　force　may　permit　a　new　enthusiasm　and　an　owl　takes　flight　the　success　of　organized　force　may　permit　a　new　enthusiasm　and　an　intense　flowering　of　culture　incidental　to　the　migration　of　scholars　engaged　in　Herculean　efforts　in　a　declining　civilization　to　a　new　area　with　possibilities　of　protection。　The　success　of　organized　force　is　dependent　on　an　effective　bination　of　the　oral　tradition　and　the　vernacular　in　public　opinion　with　technology　and　science。　An　organized　public　opinion　following　the　success　of　force　bees　receptive　to　cultural　importation。

……

I　have　attempted　to　show　that　sudden　extensions　of　munication　are　reflected　in　cultural　disturbances。　The　use　fo　clay　favoured　a　dominant　role　for　the　temples　with　an　emphasis　on　priesthood　and　religion。　Libraries　were　built　up　in　Babylon　and　Nineveh　to　strengthen　the　power　of　monarchy。　Papyrus　favoured　the　development　of　political　organization　in　Egypt。　Papyrus　and　a　simplified　form　of　writing　in　the　alphabet　supported　the　growth　of　democratic　organization；　literature；　and　philosophy　in　Greece。　Following　Alexander　empires　returned　with　centres　at　Alexandria　and　elsewhere　and　libraries　continued　as　sources　of　strength　to　monarchies。　Rome　extended　the　political　organizaton　of　Greece　in　its　emphasis　on　law　and　eventually　on　empire。　Extablishement　of　a　new　capital　at　Constantinople　was　followed　by　imperial　organization　on　the　oriental　model　particularly　after　official　recognition　of　Christianity。　Improvement　of　scripts　and　wider　dissemination　of　knowledge　enabled　the　Jews　to　survive　by　emphasis　on　the　scriptures　and　the　book。　In　turn　Christianity　exploited　the　advantages　of　parchment　and　the　codex　in　the　Bible。　With　access　to　paper　the　Mohammedans　at　Bagdad　and　later　in　Spain　and　Sicily　provided　a　medium　for　the　transmission　of　Greek　science　to　the　Western　world。　Greek　science　and　paper　with　encouragement　of　writing　in　the　vernacular　provided　the　wedge　between　the　temporal　and　the　spiritual　power　and　destroyed　the　Holy　Roman　Empire。　The　decline　of　Constantinople　meant　a　stimulus　to　Greek　literature　and　philosophy　as　the　decline　of　Mohammedanism　had　meant　a　stimulus　to　science。

Printing　brought　renewed　emphasis　on　the　book　and　the　rise　of　the　Reformation。　In　turn　new　methods　of　munication　weakened　the　worship　of　the　book　and　opened　the　way　for　new　ideologies。　Monopolies　or　oligopolies　of　knowledge　have　been　built　up　in　relation　to　the　demands　of　force　chiefly　on　the　defensive；　but　improved　technology　has　strengthened　the　position　of　force　on　the　offensive　and　pelled　realignments　faouring　the　vernacular。　Cultural　disturbances　are　acpanied　by　periods　in　which　force　occupies　an　important　place　and　are　followed　by　perioks　of　quiescence　in　which　law　extablishes　order。　The　disturbances　of　the　Macedonian　and　Roman　were　were　followed　by　the　growth　of　Roman　law；　the　end　of　the　barbarian　invasions　by　the　revival　of　Roman　law；　the　end　of　the　religious　wars　by　the　development　of　internationlal　law’　under　Grotius；　and　the　end　of　the　present　wars　of　ideology　by　a　search　for　a　new　basis　of　international　law。

Perhaps　we　might　end　by　a　plea　for　consideration　of　th　role　of　file　oral　tradition　as　a　basis　for　a　revival　of　effective　vital　discussion　and　in　this　for　an　appreciation　on　the　part　of　universities　of　the　fact　that　teachers　and　students　are　still　living　and　human。　In　the　words　of　Justice　Holmes；　“To　have　doubted　one’s　own　first　principles　is　the　mark　of　a　civilized　man”；　but　the　same　wise　man　in　Abrams　v。　United　States　started　that　“the　best　test　of　truth　is　the　power　of　thought　to　get　itself　accepted　in　the　petition　of　the　marker　“without　appreciating　that　monopoly　and　oligopoly　appear　in　this　as　in　other　markers。”