30+mba-第35章

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！


Figure　4。14　Force　field　analysis　template　
What　is　the　problem/　
change　issue？　
Where　are　we　now？　
Where　do　we　want　to　get　
to？　
What/who　are　the　main　
forces　at　work？　
Driving　forces　Neutral　forces　Resisting　forces　
What　action　can　we　take　
to　help　driving　forces；　
encourage　neutral　forces　
to　help　and　to　overe　
resisting　forces？　
Monitoring　staff　morale　
One　way　both　to　identify　the　need　for　change　and　to　keep　track　of　progress　
while　implementing　changes　is　to　carry　out　regular　surveys　of　employee　
a。。itudes；　opinions　and　feelings。　HR…Survey　（hr…survey　》　
Employee　Opinions）　and　Custom　Insight　（custominsight　》　View　
Samples　》　Sample　employee　satisfaction　survey）　provide　fast；　simple　and　
easy…to…use　so。。ware　to　carry　out　and　analyse　Human　Resources　surveys。　
They　both　have　a　range　of　examples　of　surveys　that　you　can　see　and　try　
before　you　buy；　which；　who　knows；　might　just　be　enough　to　stimulate　your　
thinking。
Business　history　
。　The　foundations　of　contract　law　
。　The　first　business　gurus　
。　Early　accounting　（and　the　death　penalty！）　
。　Stock　markets　and　coffee　houses　
。　Limiting　liabilities　
。　Encouraging　innovations　
。　Banking　beginnings　
。　The　world’s　oldest　ventures　
‘Those　who　cannot　learn　from　history　are　doomed　to　repeat　it’；　a　quote　
a。。ributed　in　several　guises　to　the　philosopher　George　Santayana；　is　just　one　
of　a　host　of　contradictory　messages　on　the　relevance　of　a　study　of　history。　
Henry　Ford；　the　founder　of　the　car　pany；　famously　said：　‘History　is　
more　or　less　bunk。　It’s　tradition。　We　don’t　want　tradition。　We　want　to　live　in　
the　present　and　the　only　history　that　is　worth　a　tinker’s　damn　is　the　history　
we　make　today。’　
There　are　at　least　two　reasons　why　an　MBA　student　should　acquire　a　
basic　appreciation　of　the　milestone　events　that　have　led　up　to　the　current　
theories　of　how　organizations；　their　constituents　and　their　surrounding　
environments　currently　operate。　The　first　is　much　the　same　reason　as　why　
most　people　learn　something　of　the　history　of　their　country；　its　neighbours；　
its　friends　and　enemies。　Such　a　study　lends　interest；　context　and　an　appreciation　
of　how　we　got　to　where　we　are　today。　It　is　much　easier　to　understand；　
for　example；　the　enmity　between　the　French　and　the　British　with　
a　sma。。ering　of　information　on　the　Hundred　Years’　War；　the　Peninsula　
War　and　the　smouldering　mercial　and　territorial　disputes　that　ranged　
around　the　world　from　the　Americas　to　India　as　well　as　across　the　African　
continent。　
The　second　reason　is　perhaps　even　more　important。　Harvard　professor　
Geoffrey　Jones；　who　edited　The　Oxford　Handbook　of　Business　History　（2008；　
5
Business　History　163　
Oxford　Handbooks　in　Business　&　Management）　with　University　of　
Wisconsin…Madison　professor　Jonathan　Zeitlin；　claims　in　his　core　history　
text　used　at　Harvard　that：　‘Over　the　last　few　decades；　business　historians　
have　generated　rich　empirical　data　that　in　some　cases　confirms　and　in　other　
cases　contradicts　many　of　today’s　fashionable　theories　and　assumptions　by　
other　disciplines。　But　unless　you　were　a　business　historian；　this　data　went　
largely　unnoticed；　and　the　consequences　were　not　just　academic。　This　loss　
of　history　has　resulted　in　the　spread　of　influential　theories　based　on　illinformed　
understandings　of　the　past。　For　example’；　Jones　continues；　‘current　
accepted　advice　is　that　wealth　and　growth　will　e　to　countries　that　open　
their　borders　to　foreign　direct　investment。　The　historical　evidence　shows　
clearly　that　this　is　an　article　of　faith　rather　than　proven　by　the　historical　
evidence　of　the　past。’　
HOW　BUSINESS　HISTORY　IS　STUDIED　IN　
BUSINESS　SCHOOLS　
If　you　had　taken　your　MBA　before　2000　you　would　have　been　unlikely　to　
find　business　history　on　the　curriculum　anywhere　outside　of　the　top　dozen　
or　so　business　schools。　The　subject；　however；　is　fast　being　mainstream。　
Even　parative　newers　are　embracing　the　subject。　Reading　Business　
School；　for　example；　set　up　its　Centre　for　International　Business　History　
（CIBH）　in　1997；　Cardiff　has　established　an　Accounting　and　Business　History　
Research　Group　（ABHRG）　and　the　Copenhagen　Business　School’s　Centre　
for　Business　History；　established　in　1999；　is　undertaking　a　long…term　study　
into　the　nature　and　consequences　of　banking　crises。　The　past　few　years　
should　give　them　plenty　of　material　to　work　on！　
Business　history　as　taught　in　business　schools　has　no　single　unified　body　
of　knowledge　in　the　manner　in　which；　say；　accounting；　marketing　or　organizational　
behaviour　has。　It　would　be　impossible　to　study　accounting　without　
covering　the　principles　underpinning　the　key　financial　reports　and　how　
to　interpret　financial　information。　While　there　may　well　be　some　unique　
content　in　specialized　electives；　say　on　Financial　Analysis　of　Mergers；　
Acquisitions　and　Other　plex　Corporate　Restructurings　taught　at　the　
London　Business　School；　or　Dealing　with　Financial　Crime　on　offer　at　Cass　
Business　School；　the　core　accounting　syllabus　in　all　business　schools　is　near　
identical　–　though　the　way　in　which　it　is　taught　may　not　be。　
History　is　taught　in　school　and　university　in　eras　or　themes：　the　Tudors；　
the　Renaissance；　the　European　World；　for　example。　In　one　of　the　premier　
UK　university　history　departments　nothing　much　is　covered　a。。er　1720；　
while　at　Harvard　Business　School　nothing　much　before　1820　is　included　
in　the　syllabus！　At　Copenhagen　MBA　students　may　have　a　thorough　grasp　
of　Norwegian；　Swedish　and　Danish　banking　in　the　interwar　years　without　
164　The　Thirty…Day　MBA　
even　a　passing　reference　to　the　Industrial　Revolution；　mercantilism　or　the　
development　of　the　great　family　business　dynasties。　It　is　just　that　the　subject　
is　too　vast　to　be　covered　in　a　meaningful　way　except　by　narrowing　down　
the　range。　Business　history　is　taught　eclectically　and　MBAs　swapping　notes　
on　their　experiences　of　Business　History　may　find　very　li。。le　in　mon。　
Here；　a　broad　sweep　of　the　subject　is　taken；　providing　snapshots　of　
important　milestones　on　ma。。ers　of　enduring　significance　to　business。　The　
content　is　divided　into　three　eras　that　are　to　some　extent　homogeneous；　
though　the　time　periods　covered　in　each　are　very　different。　The　subject　
starts　from　4000　。。。。；　though　the　purists　would　argue　that　organization　and　
innovation　started　at　least　8；000　years　earlier　when　some　munities　gave　
up　foraging　for　farming；　adopting　fundamentally　new　tools　and　techniques　
for　making　a　living。　Unfortunately；　li。。le　or　nothing　survives　in　documented　
form　to　make　it　possible　to　study　such　ancient　business　history。　The　eras　
covered　range　from　3；000　years　down　to　a　mere　half…century。　You　are　
probably　aware　of　the　claim　that　90　per　cent　of　all　the　scientists　that　ever　
lived　are　alive　today。　Well；　much　the　same　claim　can　be　made　for　business　
innovations。　While　many　important　and　essential　developments　occurred　
many　hundreds　and　even　thousands　of　years　ago；　the　most　recent　era　is　the　
best　documented　and　the　most　prolific。　
The　three　periods　covered　are　representative　samples　of　some　important　
milestones　in　business　history；　selected　here　as　they　are　the　eras　least　
familiar　to　most　students　who　have　at　least　a　passing　appreciation　of　the　
post　Industrial　Revolution　business　world。　Although　for　teaching　purposes　
neat　dates　are　o。。en　ascribed　to　such　eras；　in　practice　there　is　considerable　
overlap。　The　Fuggers　and　the　Hanseatic　League　extended　beyond　what　is　
monly　regarded　as　Mediaeval；　while　patents　began　their　life　in　that　
period　but　didn’t　have　a　serious　impact　until　much　later。　
BABYLON　AND　BEYOND　（4000　BC–1000　AD）　
Two　enduring　legacies　from　the　ancient　business　world　are　the　foundations　
of　mercial　law　and　the　first　efforts　at　accounting。　Both　these　areas　were　
subject　to　bursts　of　rapid　development　as　new　ideas　took　hold。　For　example；　
the　introduction　of　coined　money　in　about　600　。。。。　by　the　Greeks　allowed　
bankers　to　keep　account　books；　change　and　lend　money；　and　even　arrange　
for　cash　transfers　for　citizens　through　affiliate　banks　in　cities　thousands　
of　miles　away。　The　Greeks　were　less　interested　in　accounting　as　a　way　to　
influence　business　decisions　than　as　a　mechanism　for　citizens　to　maintain　
real　authority　and　control　over　their　government’s　finances。　Members　of　
the　Athens　Popular　Assembly　were　responsible　for　controlling　receipt　and　
expenditure　of　public　funds　and　10　state　accountants；　chosen　by　lot；　kept　
them　up　to　the　mark。
Business　History　165　
Although　it　was　not　until　。。。。　1080　that　the　first　law　school　was　established；　
in　Bologna；　Italy；　and　incidentally　still　in　business　today；　contract　law　governing　
transactions　and　protecting　consumer　rights　had　already　been　
around　for　nearly　4；000　years。　
One　early　example　of　a　family…run　business　is　included　here　to　show　
that　the　phenomenon　is　not　peculiar　to　the　Middle　Ages　and　beyond。　
Accountancy：　single…entry　bookkeeping　
Sometime　before　3000　。。。。　the　people　of　Uruk　and　other　sister…cities　of　
Mesopotamia　began　to　use　pictographic　tablets　of　clay　to　record　economic　
transactions。　The　script　for　the　tablets　evolved　from　symbols　and　provides　
evidence　of　an　ancient　financial　system　that　was　growing　to　acmodate　
the　needs　of　the　Uruk　economy。　The　Mesopotamian　equivalent　of　today’s　
bookkeeper　was　the　scribe。　His　duties　were　similar；　but　even　more　extensive。　
In　addition　to　writing　up　the　transactions；　he　ensured　that　the　agreements　
plied　with　the　detailed　code　requirements　for　mercial　transactions。　
Temples；　palaces　and　private　firms　employed　hundreds　of　scribes　and；　much　
as　with　the　accounting　profession　today；　it　was　considered　a　prestigious　
profession。　
In　a　typical　transaction　of　the　time；　the　parties　might　seek　out　the　scribe　
at　the　gates　to　the　city。　They　would　describe　their　agreement　to　the　scribe；　
who　would　take　from　his　supply　a　small　quantity　of　specially　prepared　
clay　on　which　to　record　the　transaction。　
Governmental　bookkeeping　in　ancient　Egypt　developed　in　a　fashion　
similar　to　the　Mesopotamian。　The　use　of　papyrus　rather　than　clay　tablets　
allowed　more　detailed　records　to　be　made　more　easily。　And　extensive　
records　were　kept；　particularly　for　the　network　of　royal　storehouses　within　
which　the　‘in　kind’　tax　payments　such　as　sheep　or　ca。。le　were　kept；　as　coinage　
had　not　yet　been　developed。　
Egyptian　bookkeepers　associated　with　each　storehouse　kept　meticulous　
records；　which　were　checked　by　an　elaborate　internal　verification　system。　
These　early　accountants　had　good　reason　to　be　honest　and　accurate；　because　
irregularities　disclosed　by　royal　audits　were　punishable　by　fine；　mutilation　
or　death。　Although　such　records　were　important；　ancient　Egyptian　accounting　
never　progressed　beyond　simple　list　making　in　its　thousands　of　years　of　
existence。　Almost　one　million　accounting　records　in　tablet　form　currently　
survive　in　museum　collections　around　the　world　
China；　during　the　Chao　Dynasty　（1122–256　。。。。）；　used　bookkeeping　chiefly　
as　a　means　of　evaluating　the　efficiency　of　governmental　programmes　and　
the　civil　servants　who　administered　them。　A　level　of　sophistication　was　
achieved　which　was　not　surpassed　in　China　until　a。。er　the　introduction　of　
the　doubl