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Hansa businessmen created partnerships for single ventures only; sending 
a ship from one port to another and then dissolving the organization。 
Their bookkeeping techniques were crude; and they constantly fought over 
the division of profits and the calculation of losses。 
As powerful rulers created nation states in England; France; Russia and 
Sweden; this loose federation of merchants simply could not succeed as 
modern nation states emerged。 Its last general assembly is said to have 
been held about 1669; but its power had long since evaporated。 
The House of Fugger 
Fugger’s business was a bridge between the Mediaeval and modern 
worlds。 The dynasty began in 1367 when Hans Fugger moved his family to 
Augsburg; Bavaria; and started a business weaving fustian; a strong co。。onand…
linen fabric。 His sons Andreas and Jacob I developed the family textile 
trade before severing their partnership in 1454。 On their own; both branches 
continued to expand their reach。 Andreas and his sons moved into finance; 
in Antwerp and Venice as well as Augsburg。 Jacob’s sons evolved from 
trade in textile goods to co。。on and spice; and ultimately into mining and 
processing silver and copper。 The family developed a network of trading 
posts under Jacob’s nephew and successor Anton that by 1525 extended 
from the Mediterranean to the Baltic。 
When Anton’s nephew Hans Jacob (1516–75) took over; he kept control 
of their holdings through regular reports from their worldwide network 
of agents。 These reports were consolidated into ‘Fugger Newsle。。ers’ and 
circulated among their associates。 This was one of the first uses of the word 
‘news’ to refer to deliberate a。。empts to gather the latest intelligence。 Three 
branches of descendants survive today; one of them – Prince Carl Fugger… 
Baben…hausen – re…established the Fugger bank in 1954。 
THE ERA OF VENTURES (1700–1900) 
Throughout history until the 18th century most businesses were small; selffinanced 
and usually short…lived affairs。 True; there were exceptions; The 
East India pany was a monopoly that all but ran India and the Far 
East; even having its own military and governmental functions。 The Peruzzi 
pany; one of the largest Florentine business ventures; was 60 per cent 
financed by seven family members and 40 per cent by ten outsiders as far 
back as 1300。 It was organized as quasi…permanent multiple partnerships。 
Pacioli’s double…entry bookkeeping system (see Chapter 1) had made 
Business History 171 
long…term ventures possible for the Venetian merchant adventurers。 But the 
general rule was that business was either a one…man band or family affair; 
using their own limited financial resources; and any collaboration with 
other business people was on a venture…by…venture basis。 The Industrial 
Revolution was about to change all that; but three other trading innovations; 
though less well recognized; were set to have an equally profound effect on 
business life。 
Intellectual property rights 
A patent gives the owner of an invention the right to take legal action 
against others to prevent the unlicensed manufacture; use; importation or 
sale of the patented invention。 Its purpose is to give inventors the breathing 
space to develop a business based on the invention; or to license it to 
someone who can。 A patent is in essence a bargain between the state and 
the inventor。 The state offers a short…term monopoly of around 20 years; in 
return for the inventor making a full description of the invention – known 
as a specification – public through the Patent Office。 In this way; other 
inventors can readily have access to the latest thinking in practically every 
area of technology and build on that to make further inventions。 That in 
turn creates wealth and opportunities for the country concerned。 The speed 
with which information now flows and the global nature of enterprise mean 
that any benefit is more to the general good rather than to any country; but 
the principle remains。 
The origins of patents for invention are obscure and no one country can 
claim to have been the first in the field with a patent system。 In about 1200 
Venice granted 10…year monopolies to inventors of silk…making devices; and 
in 1444 published the text of the oldest patent law in the world; officially 
announced as ‘Inventor Bylaws’。 However; Britain can claim to have the 
longest continuous patent tradition in the world。 Its origins can be traced 
back to the 15th century; when the Crown started making specific grants of 
privilege to manufacturers and traders。 
Such grants were signified by Le。。ers Patent; open le。。ers marked with 
the king’s Great Seal。 Henry VI granted the earliest known English patent 
for invention to Flemish…born John of Utynam in 1449。 The patent gave 
John a 20…year monopoly for a method of making stained glass; required 
for the windows of Eton College; that had not been previously known in 
England。 
Two important legal conditions were established that apply today: 
。 The famous patent of Arkwright for spinning machines was not allowed 
for the lack of an adequate specification in 1785; a。。er it had been 
in existence for 10 years。
172 The Thirty…Day MBA 
。 Wa。。’s 1796 patent for steam engines established the important principles 
that valid patents could be granted for improvements to an existing 
patented device。 
The Japanese took an interesting approach to the subject。 Because at the 
time there was a tendency to abhor new things; a ‘Law for New Items’ was 
proclaimed in year 6 of the Kyoho Era (1721)。 It was not until 1885 that 
the Japanese Patent Office was up and running。 The first patent applied 
for was a patent for ‘Ho。。a’s Method for Rust Stopping Paint and Painting 
Method’; applied for by Zuishou Ho。。a。 The Chinese Patent Office opened 
in 1985。 The late opening of the munist and former munist patent 
offices was due to their philosophical reluctance to accede private property 
rights。 
Stock markets 
The need for stock exchanges developed out of early trading activities 
in agricultural and other modities。 During the Middle Ages; traders 
found it easier to use credit that required supporting documentation of 
dra。。s; notes and bills of exchange。 The history of the earliest stock exchange; 
the French stock exchange; goes back to the 12th century when transactions 
occurred in mercial bills of exchange。 To control this budding market; 
Phillip the Fair of France (1268–1314) created the profession of couratier de 
change; which was the predecessor of the French stockbroker。 At about the 
same time; in Bruges; merchants began gathering in front of the house of 
the Van Der Buerse family to engage in trading。 Soon the name of the family 
became identified with trading and in time a ‘bourse’ came to signify a stock 
exchange。 At the same time; stock exchanges began to materialize in other 
trading centres like the Netherlands (Amsterdam Bourse) and Frankfurt 
(the Deutsche Stock Exchange; formerly the B。rse)。 
In 1698; when one John Castaing in ‘Jonathan’s Coffee…house’ in Exchange 
Alley in the City of London began publishing a list of stock and modity 
prices called ‘The Course of the Exchange and other things’; the business of 
stock exchanges really got under way。 By 1761 a group of 150 stockbrokers 
and jobbers had formed a club at Jonathan’s to buy and sell shares。 In 1773 
the brokers erected their own building in Sweeting’s Alley; with a dealing 
room on the ground floor and a coffee room above。 Briefly known as ‘New 
Jonathan’s’; members soon altered the name to ‘The Stock Exchange’。 
It was not until 1791 that the United States had its first bourse when 
the Philadelphia traders organized a stock exchange。 The following year; 
21 New York traders agreed to deal with each other under a bu。。onwood 
tree on Wall Street。 By 1794 the market had moved indoors。 India’s premier 
stock exchange; Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE); can also trace its origin 
Business History 173 
back as far as 125 years when it started as a voluntary non…profit…making 
association。 In the 1870s; a securities system was introduced in Japan and 
public bond negotiation began。 This resulted in the request for a public 
trading institution; and the ‘Stock Exchange Ordinance’ was enacted in 
May 1878。 Based on this ordinance; the ‘Tokyo Stock Exchange Co。; Ltd’ 
was established on 15 May 1878 and trading began on 1 June。 
These early stock exchanges were gentlemen’s clubs governed only by 
a few house rules。 Trading rarely started before 10。30 and was over by 
15。30。 No records were filed; no rules governed the case of a trader who 
could not deliver what he had sold and nothing prevented prices being 
manipulated。 
Limited liability panies 
From the earliest trading times to the present day; the most popular legal 
structure under which to operate has been as a sole trader; which in effect 
means every man for himself。 In the beginning; a merchant always risked 
his own money; if he had any to invest: if he travelled; as most did; he risked 
his life on the journey。 The caravan trade of Asia; Asia Minor; and North and 
Central Africa ploughed their way through the sands that separated distant 
cities and seaports。 The largest caravans prised thousands of camels 
and required careful administration。 They also stimulated people to band 
together in partnerships; pooling protection costs and profits to spread the 
risks。 The partnerships would usually last only for the particular journey。 
Later on; older merchants who had made money from earlier ventures 
could join such expeditions by pu。。ing up money; without the hardship of 
making the trip themselves。 This could be seen as an early form of limited 
partnership。 
As the ventures became more costly and of longer duration; partnership 
structures of fixed duration between 1; 3 or 5 years became mon; with 
an ever…increasing range of partners with differing shares in the venture。 To 
add to the plications these partners could join and leave; perhaps for 
no more sinister reason than death; at different times。 
The concept of limited liability; where the shareholders are not liable; in 
the last resort; for the debts of their business; changed the whole nature of 
business and risk taking。 It opened the floodgate; encouraging a new generation 
of entrepreneurs to undertake much larger…scale ventures without 
taking on themselves all the consequences of failure。 As the name suggests; 
in this form of business liability is limited to the amount you contribute 
by way of share capital and; in the event of failure; creditors’ claims are 
restricted to the assets of the pany。 The shareholders of the business are 
not normally liable as individuals for the business debts beyond the paidup 
value of their shares。
174 The Thirty…Day MBA 
The concept itself can be traced back to the Roman Empire; where it 
was granted; albeit infrequently; as a special favour to friends for large 
undertakings by those in power。 The idea was resurrected in 1811 when 
New York State brought in a general limited liability law for manufacturing 
panies。 Most US states followed suit a

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