30+mba-第55章

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Temperature　（F）　
Sales　units　（000's）
Quantitative　and　Qualitative　Research　and　Analysis　255　
through　a　joint　research　project　with　K。U。Leuven　Association；　a　network　of　
13　institutions　of　higher　education　in　Flanders。　
For　help　in　understanding　these　statistical　techniques；　read　The　Li。。le　
Handbook　of　Statistical　Practice　by　Gerard　E　Dallal　of　Tu。。s；　available　free　
online　（tu。。s。edu/~gdallal/LHSP。HTM）。　At　Princeton’s　website　（h。。p：//　
dss。princeton。edu/online_help/analysis/interpreting_regression。htm）　you　
can　find　a　tutorial　and　lecture　notes　on　the　subject　as　taught　to　its　Master　of　
International　Business　students。　
QUALITATIVE　RESEARCH　AND　ANALYSIS　
Qualitative　research　is　a　well…entrenched　academic　tradition　in　sociology；　
history；　geography　and　anthropology；　it　is　widely　used　in　the　medical　
and　political　fields。　It　has　made　much　less　of　a　mark　in　business；　perhaps　
because　of　its　image　as　a　so。。er；　more　ethereal　discipline。　That　situation　is　
changing　with　the　growing　realization　that　while　quantitative　research　can　
reveal　what　issues　are　important　and　even　where　they　lie；　it　is　of　rather　
less　use　in　understanding　why　they　have　e　about　or　what　to　do　about　
them。　Qualitative　research　es　into　its　own　particularly　when　these　are　
important　factors：　
。　plex　issues：　Quantitative　methods　are　useful　for　separating　out　
and　measuring　individual　factors；　say　what　percentage　of　customers　
are　dissatisfied　with　a　product　or　service　and　how　many　will　defect。　
Qualitative　methods　can　help　get　an　understanding　of　the　linkages　
between　these　factors　and　the　peting　tensions　they　arouse。　
。　Stakeholders’　differences：　Not　everyone　involved　in　an　organization　
sees　ma。。ers　from　the　same　perspective。　O。。en　the　aggregation　nature　of　
quantitative　methods　makes　it　difficult　to　fully　appreciate　the　position　
of　less　powerful　stakeholders。　Qualitative　research　gives　individuals　a　
voice　in　the　analytical　process。　
。　Significant　remendations：　When　the　consequences　of　research　are　
likely　to　result　in　remendations　with　significant　consequences；　
for　example　changing　work　pa。。erns；　shu。。ing　down　a　unit　or　altering　
pay　and　conditions；　qualitative　research　allows　a。。itudes　and　feelings　
towards　potential　courses　of　action　to　be　explored；　leading　hopefully　to　
a　less　contentious　oute。　
Researchers　used　to　quantitative　analysis　frequently　dismiss　qualitative　
research　as　‘unscientific’　and　‘anecdotal’。　It　certainly　doesn’t　have　to　succumb　
to　such　criticism；　as　the　array　of　tools　used　in　qualitative　research　is　
large　and　the　tools　have　a　well…documented　and　rigorous　methodology　for　
their　application。
256　The　Thirty…Day　MBA　
Observation　
The　power　of　observation　as　a　method　of　gathering　data　lies　in　the　inconsistency　
between　what　people　will　say　in　an　interview；　or　on　a　questionnaire；　
and　what　they　actually　do。　It’s　not　that　people　are　necessarily　lying；　it’s　
just　that　their　capacity　for　self…deception　is　o。。en　high。　Customers　may　feel　
foolish　admi。。ing　they　have　difficulty　finding　their　way　around　a　shop　and　
so　would　not　record　that　fact。　That　doesn’t　mean　that　they　don’t　have　a　
problem　and　that　a　pany　would　not　gain　valuable　information　from　
finding　out　about　it。　
So　observations　can　give　valuable　insights　into　how　things　look　from　an　
outsider　such　as　a　customer；　supplier　or　prospective　employee。　But　such　
insights　will　only　be　representative　of　the　time　the　researcher　was　observing　
and　may　not　be　indicative　of　the　general　level　of　service。　They　are　o。。en　used　
to　provide　contextual　information　alongside　some　other　research　method。　
Observations　themselves　generally　e　in　one　of　two　forms：　
。　Participating　observation：　This　is　where　the　observer　takes　part　in　at　
least　some　aspect　of　what　is　being　assessed　in　order　to　get　a　be。。er　understanding　
of　insider　views　and　experiences。　This；　for　example；　could　
involve　going　through　the　whole　procedure　of　making　a　purchase　or　
using　a　service；　rather　than　standing　on　the　sidelines　watching　others。　
This　is　the　methodology　used　in　mystery　shopping。　
。　Pure　observation：　Here　the　observer　stays　aloof　from　the　situation　under　
assessment　so　as　not　to　influence　it　and　so　perhaps　bias　the　findings。　
The　great　difficulty　in　carrying　out　this　type　of　research　is　being　able　to　
record　observations　accurately。　Taking　notes　can　be　conspicuous　and　will　
almost　certainly　put　those　being　observed　on　their　guard。　
Interviews　
Talking　and　listening　to　people　is　the　most　basic　and　the　most　used　method　
of　conducting　qualitative　research。　Qualitative　interviews　can　take　several　
forms　and　can　be　incorporated　into　triangulation　methods　（see　below）。　
These　are　the　main　interview　types：　
。　Open…ended　ad　hoc　conversations　allowing　interviewees　to　drive　
the　discussion　with　minimum　intervention　by　the　interviewer；　for　example　
users　of　a　product　or　service　could　be　asked　to　give　their　feelings　
without　being　steered　towards　questions　concerning　satisfaction　or　
dissatisfaction。　This　approach　can　throw　up　issues　that　have　not　been　
explored　by　the　researcher。
Quantitative　and　Qualitative　Research　and　Analysis　257　
。　Open…ended　interviews　where　the　broad　issues　to　be　covered　are　stated；　
but　the　course　of　conversation　is　allowed　to　decide　the　order　or　ways　in　
which　questions　are　asked。　
。　Semi…structured　interviews　where　the　questions　are　largely　planned　in　
advance；　with　time　le。。　for　issues　that　arise　mainly　as　a　result　of　the　
conversation　itself。　
。　Qualitative　questions　built　into　structured　surveys　and　questionnaires；　
where　the　main　thrust　is　to　gather　quantitative　data。　For　example；　in　an　
interview　carried　out　to　measure　staff　morale；　questions　such　as　‘how　
do　you　feel　about　the　new　pay　scale？’　could　be　interspersed　with　questions　
that　gather　quantitative　data　such　as　‘do　you　now　feel：　10％　be。。er　
off；　the　same；　10％　worse　off？’。　
。　Cognitive　interviews：　These　are　used　to　test　respondents’　understanding　
of　the　meaning　of　questions　or　statements　and　are　eventually　to　be　
used　in　questionnaires；　user　instructions　and　manuals；　for　example。　
Qualitative　interviews　differ　from　surveys；　for　example　in　that　they　adhere　
less　to　a　fixed　set　of　questions　but　continually　probe　and　cross…check　information；　
building　cumulatively　on　the　knowledge　gained　from　earlier　
answers。　Nevertheless；　interviewers　at　some　point　have　to　ask　the　questions　
that　give　them　the　specific　data　they　need。　Good　interpersonal　skills；　sensitivity　
to　the　respondent；　conducting　the　interviews　at　an　appropriate　time　
and　place；　using　trained　interviewers　as　well　as　having　an　appropriate　
sample　are　all　vital　to　successful　interviewing。　
Focus　groups　
Focus　groups　are　a　form　of　multiple　interview；　with　small　groups　of　around　
8　to　10　people　selected　with　specific　key　a。。ributes　in　mind：　specific　knowledge；　
experience　or　socioeconomic　characteristics；　for　example。　Participants　
are　invited　to　a。。end　informal　discussion　sessions　of　no　more　than　two　
hours’　duration　on　a　particular　topic；　facilitated　by　someone　knowledgeable　
about　the　issues　involved；　but　tactful　and　firm　enough　to　keep　the　group　
in　order　and　on　task。　O。。en　an　incentive　is　offered　for　people　to　a。。end。　
The　advantages　of　using　a　focus　group　over　interviews　include　efficiency；　
as　you　can　get　10　opinions　in　around　twice　the　time　it　takes　to　conduct　an　
interview；　and　by　listening　to　other　people’s　ments；　o。。en　more　ideas；　
opinions　and　experiences　and　insights　can　be　gained。　It　is　also　easier　to　take　
notes　of　the　discussion　as　this　is　expected　and　less　threatening　in　a　group　
situation。　But；　as　with　interviews；　it　relies　on　the　views　of　a　small　sample　
and　so　is　not　truly　representative　of　any　body　of　opinion。　
Three　variations　on　focus　groups　are：
258　The　Thirty…Day　MBA　
。　Neighbourhood　forum：　These　are　structured；　regular　local　meetings　
for　local　people　to　consult　about　issues　of　local　importance。　The　term　
local　can　mean　any　characteristic　that　binds　people　together　–　young　
mothers；　pensioners；　train　users。　
。　Citizens’　juries：　These　involve　a　small　sample　of　the　public　spending　
perhaps　a　day　or　two；　at　most；　debating　an　issue　in　a　quasi…judicial　setting。　
They　hear　experts　present　the　various　sides　to　an　argument；　much　
as　in　court　they　would　take　evidence　from　witnesses。　This　approach　is　
used　by　local　government　and　police　forces；　but　is　also　used　by　major　
local　employers　to　gain　insights　into　local　munity　issues　that　they　
might　impinge　on。　
。　Brainstorming　sessions：　These　are　group　meetings　designed　to　stimulate　
creative　thinking　to　solve　a　particular　problem　or　address　a　single　
issue。　There　are　three　steps　to　brainstorming。　Initially　the　group　should　
try　to　generate　as　many　ideas　as　possible；　without　criticism；　weling　
unusual　and　even　apparently　impractical　or　impossible　propositions。　
Next；　the　propositions　should　be　reviewed　briefly　to　either　eliminate　
the　ones　universally　agreed　to　be　unworkable　or　to　bine　ideas　to　
form　be。。er　solutions。　Finally；　the　handful　of　feasible　solutions　are　discussed　
and　ranked。　All　that　is　needed　by　way　of　materials　are　a　flip　
chart；　marker　pens　and　Blu…tack　to　fix　the　ideas　that　have　been　generated　
visibly　onto　walls。　
Case　studies　
A　case　study　is　a　prehensive　and　systematic　study　of　a　specific　organization；　
event　or　subject。　They　can　be　wri。。en；　on　film　or　puter　and　are　
usually　used　where　wide…ranging；　plex　questions　have　to　be　addressed　
and　the　findings　used　either　as　a　focus　for　further　discussion；　for　illustrative　
purposes　or　for　training。　The　case　study　needs　an　underlying　question　–　how　
did　the　pany　go　about　closing　down　a　particular　unit；　for　example。　It　
doesn’t　answer　the　question；　rather　it　provides　the　‘reader’　with　information　
from　interviews；　pany　and　public　documents；　observations　and　such　
sources；　from　which　they　can　debate　and　form　an　opinion。　
TRIANGULATION　
This　is　the　rather　pretentious　name　given　to　the　bination　of　qualitative　
and　quantitative　research　methods；　a　sensible　process　that　allows　
researchers　to　get　the　best　of　both　worlds。　In　fact　the　disciplines　already　
overlap。　Quantitative　research　produces　numbers　–　the　number　of　people　
questioned；　for　example；　or　how　many　times　a　particular　feeling　or　opinion　
Quantitative　and　Qualitative　Research　and　Analysis　259　
was　mentioned　in　an　interview。　Qualitative　methodology　can　be　used　to　
shed　light　on　qualitative　issues；　such　as　how　strongly　people　feel　about　
a　certain　issue。　Triangulation　strengthens　qualitative　and　quantitative　
analyses　by　bining　insights　from　both。　
Surveys　
The　most　mon　research　method　that　bines　quantitative　and　qualitative　
processes　is　the　survey。　This　is　a　near…ubiquitous　tool　used　in　organizations　
to　get　a　handle　on　almost　every　aspect　from　measuring　employee　
morale　or　assessing　customer　satisfaction　to　ge。。ing　the　views　of　almost　any　
stakeholder　group　on　almost　any　issue。　MBAs　will　certainly　have　to　know　
how　to　get　surveys　done　and；　if　working　in　a　small　organization；　they　may　
well　have　to　do　it　themselves。　
Around　half　of　all　surveys　are　conducted　face　to　face；　considered　best　for　
tackling　consumer　markets。　Next　in　popularity　e