list1-第11章

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the　new　routes　to　India　and　of　America；　had　on　the　growth　of



English　liberties；　of　English　civilisation；　and　of　English



industry？　Compare　with　this　their　effect　upon　Germany　and　France。



In　Germany　　discord　in　the　Empire；　in　the　provinces；　even　within



the　walls　of　cities；　miserable　controversies；　barbarism　in



literature；　in　the　administration　of　the　State　and　of　the　law；



civil　war；　persecutions；　expatriation；　foreign　invasion；



depopulation；　desolation；　the　ruin　of　cities；　the　decay　of



industry；　agriculture；　and　trade；　of　freedom　and　civic



institutions；　supremacy　of　the　great　nobles；　decay　of　the　imperial



power；　and　of　nationality；　severance　of　the　fairest　provinces　from



the　Empire。　In　France　　subjugation　of　the　cities　and　of　the



nobles　in　the　interest　of　despotism；　alliance　with　the　priesthood



against　intellectual　freedom；　but　at　the　same　time　national　unity



and　power；　conquest　with　its　gain　and　its　curse；　but；　as　against



that；　downfall　of　freedom　and　of　industry。　In　England　　the　rise



of　cities；　progress　in　agriculture；　commerce；　and　manufactures；



subjection　of　the　aristocracy　to　the　law　of　the　land；　and　hence　a



preponderating　participation　by　the　nobility　in　the　work　of



legislation；　in　the　administration　of　the　State　and　of　the　law；　as



also　in　the　advantages　of　industry；　development　of　resources　at



home；　and　of　political　power　abroad；　internal　peace；　influence　over



all　less　advanced　communities；　limitation　of　the　powers　of　the



Crown；　but　gain　by　the　Crown　in　royal　revenues；　in　splendour　and



stability。　Altogether；　a　higher　degree　of　well…being；　civilisation；



and　freedom　at　home；　and　preponderating　might　abroad。



　　　　But　who　can　say　how　much　of　these　happy　results　is　attributable



to　the　English　national　spirit　and　to　the　constitution；　how　much　to



England's　geographical　position　and　circumstances　in　the　past；　or



again；　how　much　to　chance；　to　destiny；　to　fortune？



　　　　Let　Charles　V　and　Henry　VIII　change　places；　and；　in　consequence



of　a　villanous　divorce　trial；　it　is　conceivable　（the　reader　will



understand　why　we　say　'conceivable'）　that　Germany　and　the



Netherlands　might　have　become　what　England　and　Spain　have　become。



Place　in　the　position　of　Elizabeth；　a　weak　woman　allying　herself　to



a　Philip　II；　and　how　would　it　have　fared　with　the　power；　the



civilisation；　and　the　liberties　of　Great　Britain？



　　　　If　the　force　of　national　character　will　alone　account　for



everything　in　this　mighty　revolution；　must　not　then　the　greatest



share　of　its　beneficial　results　have　accrued　to　the　nation　from



which　it　sprang；　namely；　to　Germany？　Instead　of　that；　it　is　just



the　German　nation　which　reaped　nothing　save　trouble　and　weakness



from　this　movement　in　the　direction　of　progress。



　　　　In　no　European　kingdom　is　the　institution　of　an　aristocracy



more　judiciously　designed　than　in　England　for　securing　to　the



nobility；　in　their　relation　to　the　Crown　and　the　commonalty；



individual　independence；　dignity；　and　stability；　to　give　them　a



Parliamentary　training　and　position；　to　direct　their　energies　to



patriotic　and　national　aims；　to　induce　them　to　attract　to　their　own



body　the　閘ite　of　the　commonalty；　to　include　in　their　ranks　every



commoner　who　earns　distinction；　whether　by　mental　gifts；



exceptional　wealth；　or　great　achievements；　and；　on　the　other　hand；



to　cast　back　again　amongst　the　commons　the　surplus　progeny　of



aristocratic　descent；　thus　leading　to　the　amalgamation　of　the



nobility　and　the　commonalty　in　future　generations。　By　this　process



the　nobility　is　ever　receiving　from　the　Commons　fresh　accessions　of



civic　and　patriotic　energy；　of　science；　learning；　intellectual　and



material　resources；　while　it　is　ever　restoring　to　the　people　a



portion　of　the　culture　and　of　the　spirit　of　independence　peculiarly



its　own；　leaving　its　own　children　to　trust　to　their　own　resources；



and　supplying　the　commonalty　with　incentives　to　renewed　exertion。



In　the　case　of　the　English　lord；　however　large　may　be　the　number　of



his　descendants；　only　one　can　hold　the　title　at　a　time。　The　other



members　of　the　family　are　commoners；　who　gain　a　livelihood　either



in　one　of　the　learned　professions；　or　in　the　Civil　Service；　in



commerce；　industry；　or　agriculture。　The　story　goes　that　some　time



ago　one　of　the　first　dukes　in　England　conceived　the　idea　of



inviting　all　the　blood　relations　of　his　house　to　a　banquet；　but　he



was　fain　to　abandon　the　design　because　their　name　was　legion；



notwithstanding　that　the　family　pedigree　had　not　reached　farther



back　than　for　a　few　centuries。　It　would　require　a　whole　volume　to



show　the　effect　of　this　institution　upon　the　spirit　of　enterprise；



the　colonisation；　the　might　and　the　liberties；　and　especially　upon



the　forces　of　production　of　this　nation。（9*）



　　　　The　geographical　position　of　England；　too；　has　exercised　an



immense　influence　upon　the　independent　development　of　the　nation。



England　in　its　relation　to　the　continent　of　Europe　has　ever　been　a



world　by　itself；　and　was　always　exempt　from　the　effects　of　the



rivalries；　the　prejudices；　the　selfishness；　the　passions；　and　the



disasters　of　her　Continental　neighbours。　To　this　isolated　condition



she　is　mainly　indebted　for　the　independent　and　unalloyed　growth　of



her　political　constitution；　for　the　undisturbed　consummation　of　the



Reformation；　and　for　the　secularisation　of　ecclesiastical　property



which　has　proved　so　beneficial　to　her　industries。　To　the　same　cause



she　is　also　indebted　for　that　continuous　peace；　which；　with　the



exception　of　the　period　of　the　civil　war；　she　has　enjoyed　for　a



series　of　centuries；　and　which　enabled　her　to　dispense　with



standing　armies；　while　facilitating　the　early　introduction　of　a



consistent　customs　system。



　　　　By　reason　of　her　insular　position；　England　not　only　enjoyed



immunity　from　territorial　wars；　but　she　also　derived　immense



advantages　for　her　manufacturing　supremacy　from　the　Continental



wars。　Land　wars　and　devastations　of　territory　inflict　manifold



injury　upon　the　manufactures　at　the　seat　of　hostilities；　directly；



by　interfering　with　the　farmer's　work　and　destroying　the　crops；



which　deprives　the　tiller　of　the　soil　of　the　means　wherewithal　to



purchase　manufactured　goods；　and　to　produce　raw　material　and　food



for　the　manufacturer；　indirectly；　by　often　destroying　the



manufactories；　or　at　any　rate　ruining　them；　because　hostilities



interfere　with　the　importation　of　raw　material　and　with　the



exportation　of　goods；　and　because　it　becomes　a　difficult　matter　to



procure　capital　and　labour　just　at　the　very　time　when　the　masters



have　to　bear　extraordinary　imposts　and　heavy　taxation；　and　lastly



the　injurious　effects　continue　to　operate　even　after　the　cessation



of　the　war；　because　both　capital　and　individual　effort　are　ever



attracted　towards　agricultural　work　and　diverted　from　manufactures；



precisely　in　that　proportion　in　which　the　war　may　have　injured　the



farmers　and　their　crops；　and　thereby　opened　up　a　more　directly



profitable　field　for　the　employment　of　capital　and　of　labour　than



the　manufacturing　industries　would　then　afford。　While　in　Germany



this　condition　of　things　recurred　twice　in　every　hundred　years；　and



caused　German　manufactures　to　retrograde；　those　of　England　made



uninterrupted　progress。　English　manufacturers；　as　opposed　to　their



Continental　competitors；　enjoyed　a　double　and　treble　advantage



whenever　England；　by　fitting　out　fleets　and　armies；　by　subsidies；



or　by　both　these　means　combined；　proceeded　to　take　an　active　part



in　foreign　wars。



　　　　We　cannot　agree　with　the　defenders　of　unproductive　expenditure；



namely；　of　that　incurred　by　wars　and　the　maintenance　of　large



armies；　nor　with　those　who　insist　upon　the　positively　beneficial



character　of　a　public　debt；　but　neither　do　we　believe　that　the



dominant　school　are　in　the　right　when　they　contend　that　all



consumption　which　is　not　directly　reproductive　　for　instance；



that　of　war　　is　absolutely　injurious　without　qualification。　The



equipment　of　armies；　wars；　and　the　debts　contracted　for　these



purposes；　may；　as　the　example　of　England　teaches；　under　certain



circumstances；　very　greatly　conduce　to　the　increase　of　the



productive　powers　of　a　nation。　Strictly　speaking；　material　wealth



may　have　been　consumed　unproductively；　but　this　consumption　may；



nevertheless；　stimulate　manufacturers　to　extraordinary　exertions；



and　lead　to　new　discoveries　and　improvements；　especially　to　an



increase　of　productive　powers。　This　productive　power　then　becomes



a　permanent　acquisition；　it　will　increase　more　and　more；　while　the



expense　of　the　war　is　incurred　only　once　for　all。（10*）　And　thus　it



may　come　to　pass；　under　favouring　conditions　such　as　have　occurred



in　England；　that　a　nation　has　gained　immeasurably　more　than　it　has



lost　from　that　very　kind　of　expenditure　which　theorists　hold　to　be



unproductive。　That　such　was　really　the　case　with　England；　may　be



shown　by　figures。　For　in　the　course　of　the　war；　that　country　had



acquired　in　the　cotton　manufacture　alone　a　power　of　production



which　yields　annually　a　much　larger　return　in　value　than　the　amount



which　the　nation　has　to　find　to　defray　the　interest　upon　the



increased　national　debt；　not　to　mention　the　vast　development　of　all



other　branches　of　industry；　and　the　additions　to　her　colonial



wealth。



　　　　Most　conspicuous　was　the　advantage　accruing　to　the　English



manufacturing　interest　during　the　Continental　wars；　when　England



maintained　army　corps　on　the　Continent　or　paid　subsidies。　The　whole



expenditure　on　these　was　sent；　in　the　shape　of　English



manufactures；　to　the　seat　of　war；　where　these　imports　then



materially　contributed　to　crush　the　already　sorely　suffering



foreign　manufacturers；　and　permanently　to　acquire　the　market　of　the



foreign　country　for　English　manufacturing　industry。　It　operated



precisely　like　an　export　bounty　instituted　for　the　benefit　of



British　and　for　the　injury　of　foreign　manufacturers。（11*）



　　　　In　this　way；　the　industry　of　the　Continental　nations　has　ever



suffered　more　from　the　English　as　allies；　than　from　the　English　as



enemies。　In　support　of　this　statement　we　need　refer　only　to　the



Seven　Years'　War；　and　to　the　wars　against　the　French　Republic　and



Empire。



　　　　Great；　however；　as　have　been　the　advantages　heretofore



mentioned；　they　have　been　greatly　surpassed　in　their　effect　by



those　which　England　derived　from　immigrations　attracted　by