aeroplanes and dirigibles of war-第13章

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military　strategy　and　tactics　were　somewhat　nonplussed　by　the

appearance　of　this　new　factor。　　At　the　time　it　was　an　entirely

unknown　quantity。　　It　is　true　that　aircraft　had　been　employed　in

the　Balkan　and　the　Italo…Ottoman　campaigns；　but　upon　such　a

limited　scale　as　to　afford　no　comprehensive　idea　of　their

military　value　and　possibilities。



The　belligerents；　therefore；　were　caught　somewhat　at　a

disadvantage；　and　an　appreciable　period　of　time　elapsed　before

the　significance　of　the　aerial　force　could　be　appreciated；　while

means　of　counter　acting　or　nullifying　its　influences　had　to　be

evolved　simultaneously；　and　according　to　the　exigencies　of　the

moment。　　At　all　events；　the　protagonists　were　somewhat　loth　to

utilise　the　dirigible　upon　an　　elaborate　scale　or　in　an

aggressive　manner。　　It　was　employed　more　after　the　fashion　of　a

captive　balloon；　being　sent　aloft　from　a　point　well　behind　the

front　lines　of　the　force　to　which　it　was　attached；　and　well　out

of　the　range　of　hostile　guns。　　Its　　manoeuvres　were　somewhat

circumscribed；　and　were　carried　out　at　a　safe　distance　from　the

enemy；　dependence　being　placed　upon　the　advantages　of　an

elevated　position　for　the　gathering　of　information。



But　as　the　campaign　progressed；　the　airships　became　more　daring。　

Their　ability　to　soar　to　a　great　height　offered　them　complete

protection　against　gun…fire；　and　accordingly　sallies　over　the

hostile　lines　were　carried　out。　　But　even　here　a　certain

hesitancy　became　manifest。　　This　was　perfectly　excusable；　for　the

simple　reason　that　the　dirigible；　above　all；　is　a　fair…weather

craft；　and　disasters；　which　had　overtaken　these　vessels　time

after　time；　rendered　prudence　imperative。　　Moreover；　but　little

was　known　of　the　range　and　destructiveness　of　anti…aircraft　guns。



In　the　duty　of　reconnoitring　the　dirigible　possesses　one　great

advantage　over　its　heavier…than…air　rival。　　It　can　remain

virtually　stationary　in　the　air；　the　propellers　revolving　at　just

sufficient　speed　to　off…set　the　wind　and　tendencies　to　drift。　　In

other　words；　it　has　the　power　of　hovering　over　a　position；

thereby　enabling　the　observers　to　complete　their　task　carefully

and　with　deliberation。



On　the　other　hand；　the　means　of　enabling　an　aeroplane　to　hover

still　remain　to　be　discovered。　　It　must　travel　at　a　certain　speed

through　the　air　to　maintain　its　dynamic　equilibrium；　and　this

speed　is　often　too　high　to　enable　the　airman　to　complete　his

reconnaissance　with　sufficient　accuracy　to　be　of　value　to　the

forces　below。　　All　that　the　aeroplane　can　do　is　to　circle　above　a

certain　position　until　the　observer　is　satisfied　with　the　data　he

has　collected。



But　hovering　on　the　part　of　the　dirigible　is　not　without

conspicuous　drawbacks。　　The　work　of　observation　cannot　be

conducted　with　any　degree　of　accuracy　at　an　excessive　altitude。　

Experience　has　proved　that　the　range　of　the　latest　types　of　anti…

aircraft　weapons　is　in　excess　of　anticipations。　　The　result　is

that　the　airship　is　useless　when　hovering　beyond　the　zone　of

fire。　　The　atmospheric　haze；　even　in　the　clearest　weather；

obstructs　the　observer's　vision。　　The　caprices　of　this　obstacle

are　extraordinary；　as　anyone　who　has　indulged　in　ballooning

knows　fully　well。　　On　a　clear　summer's　day　I　have　been　able　to

see　the　ground　beneath　with　perfect　distinctness　from　a　height　of

4；500　feet；　yet　when　the　craft　had　ascended　a　further　two　or

three　hundred　feet；　the　panorama　was　blurred。　　A　film　of　haze

lies　between　the　balloon　and　the　ground　beneath。　　And　the

character　of　this　haze　is　continually　changing；　so　that　the

aerial　observer's　task　is　rendered　additionally　difficult。　　Its

effects　are　particularly　notice　able　when　one　attempts　to

photograph　the　view　unfolded　below。　　Plate　after　plate　may　be

exposed　and　nothing　will　be　revealed。　　Yet　at　a　slightly　lower

altitude　the　plates　may　be　exposed　and　perfectly　sharp　and

well…defined　images　will　be　obtained。



Seeing　that　the　photographic　eye　is　keener　and　more　searching

than　the　human　organ　of　sight；　it　is　obvious　that　this　haze

constitutes　a　very　formidable　obstacle。　　German　military

observers；　who　have　accompanied　the　Zeppelins　and　Parsevals　on

numerous　aerial　journeys　under　varying　conditions　of　weather；

have　repeatedly　drawn　attention　to　this　factor　and　its　caprices；

and　have　not　hesitated　to　venture　the　opinion　that　it　would

interfere　seriously　with　military　aerial　reconnaissances；　and

also　that　it　would　tend　to　render　such　work　extremely　hazardous

at　times。



When　these　conditions　prevail　the　dirigible　must　carry　out　its

work　upon　the　broad　lines　of　the　aeroplane。　　It　must　descend　to

the　level　where　a　clear　view　of　the　ground　may　be　obtained；　and

in　the　interests　of　safety　it　has　to　keep　on　the　move。　　To

attempt　to　hover　within　4；000　feet　of　the　ground　is　to　court

certain　disaster；　inasmuch　as　the　vessel　offers　a　magnificent　and

steady　target　which　the　average　gunner；　equipped　with　the　latest

sighting　devices　and　the　most　recent　types　of　guns；　scarcely

could　fail　to　hit。



But　the　airman　in　the　aeroplane　is　able　to　descend　to　a

comparatively　low　level　in　safety。　　The　speed　and　mobility　of　his

machine　constitute　his　protection。　　He　can　vary　his　altitude；

perhaps　only　thirty　or　forty　feet；　with　ease　and　rapidity；　and

this　erratic　movement　is　more　than　sufficient　to　perplex　the

marksmen　below；　although　the　airman　is　endangered　if　a　rafale　is

fired　in　such　a　manner　as　to　cover　a　wide　zone。



Although　the　aeroplane　may　travel　rapidly　it　is　not　too　fleet　for

a　keen　observer　who　is　skilled　in　his　peculiar　task。　　He　may　only

gather　a　rough　idea　of　the　disposition　of　troops；　their

movements；　the　lines　of　communication；　and　other　details　which

are　indispensable　to　his　commander；　but　in　the　main　the

intelligence　will　be　fairly　accurate。　　Undulating　flight　enables

him　to　determine　speedily　the　altitude　at　which　he　is　able　to

obtain　the　clearest　views　of　the　country　beneath。　　Moreover；

owing　to　his　speed　he　is　able　to　complete　his　task　in　far　less

time　than　his　colleague　operating　in　the　dirigible；　the　result

being　that　the　information　placed　at　the　disposal　of　his　superior

officers　is　more　to　the　moment；　and　accordingly　of　greater　value。



Reconnoitring　by　aeroplane　may　be　divided　into　two　broad

categories；　which；　though　correlated　to　a　certain　degree；　are

distinctive；　because　each　constitutes　a　specific　phase　in

military　operations。　　They　are　known　respectively　as　〃tactical〃

and　〃strategical〃　movements。　　The　first　is　somewhat　limited　in

its　scope　as　compared　with　the　latter；　and　has　invariably　to　be

carried　out　rapidly；　whereas　the　strategical　reconnaissance　may

occupy　several　hours。



The　tactical　reconnaissance　concerns　the　corps　or　divisional

commander　to　which　the　warplane　is　attached；　and　consequently　its

task　is　confined　to　the　observation　of　the　line　immediately

facing　the　particular　corps　or　division。　　The　aviator　does　not

necessarily　penetrate　beyond　the　lines　of　the　enemy；　but；　as　a

rule　limits　his　flight　to　some　distance　from　his　outermost

defences。　　The　airman　must　possess　a　quick　eye；　because

his　especial　duty　is　to　note　the　disposition　of　the　troops

immediately　facing　him；　the　placing　of　the　artillery；　and　any

local　movements　of　the　forces　that　may　be　in　progress。　

Consequently　the　aviator　engaged　on　this　service　may　be　absent

from　his　lines　for　only　a　few　minutes；　comparatively　speaking；

the　intelligence　he　acquires　must　be　speedily　communicated　to　the

force　to　which　he　is　attached；　because　it　may　influence　a　local

movement。



The　strategical　reconnaissance；　on　the　other　hand；　affects　the

whole　plan　of　campaign。　　The　aviators　told　off　for　this　duty　are

attached　to　the　staff　of　the　Commander…in…Chief；　and　the　work　has

to　be　carried　out　upon　a　far　more　comprehensive　and　elaborate

scale；　while　the　airmen　are　called　upon　to　penetrate　well　into

the　hostile　territory　to　a　point　thirty；　forty；　or　more　miles

beyond　the　outposts。



The　procedure　is　to　instruct　the　flier　either　to　carry　out　his

observations　of　the　territory　generally；　or　to　report　at　length

upon　a　specified　stretch　of　country。　　In　the　latter　event　he　may

fly　to　and　fro　over　the　area　in　question　until　he　has　acquired

all　the　data　it　is　possible　to　collect。　　His　work　not　only

comprises　the　general　disposition　of　troops；　defences；　placing　of

artillery；　points　where　reserves　are　being　held；　high…roads；

railways；　base　camps；　and　so　forth；　but　he　is　also　instructed　to

bring　back　as　correct　an　idea　as　possible　of　what　the　enemy

proposes　to　do；　so　that　his　Commander…in…Chief　may　adjust　his

moves　accordingly。　　In　order　to　perform　this　task　with　the

requisite　degree　of　thoroughness　it　is　often　necessary　for　the

airman　to　remain　in　the　air　for　several　hours　continuously；　not

returning；　in　fact；　until　he　has　completed　the　allotted　duty。



The　airman　engaged　in　strategical　aerial　reconnaissance　must

possess；　above　all　things；　what　is　known　as　a　〃military〃　eye

concerning　the　country　he　traverses。　　He　must　form　tolerably

correct　estimates　of　the　forces　beneath　and　their　character。　　He

must　possess　the　ability　to　read　a　map　rapidly　as　he　moves

through　the　air　and　to　note　upon　it　all　information　which　is

likely　to　be　of　service　to　the　General　Staff。　　The　ability　to

prepare　military　sketches　rapidly　and　intelligibly　is　a　valuable

attribute；　and　skill　in　aerial　photography　is　a　decidedly　useful

acquisition。



Such　men　must　be　of　considerable　stamina；　inasmuch　as　great

demands　are　made　upon　their　powers　of　endurance。　　Being　aloft　for

several　hours　imposes　a　severe　tax　upon　the　nervous　system；　while

it　must　also　be　borne　in　mind　that　all　sorts　and　conditions　of

weather　are　likely　to　be　encountered；　more　particularly　during

the　winter。　　Hail；　rain；　and　blizzards　may　be　experienced　in

turn；　while　the　extreme　cold　which　often　prevails　in　the　higher

altitudes　during　the　winter　season　is　a　fearful　enemy　to　combat。　

Often　an　airman　upon　his　return　from　such　a　reconnaissance　has

been　discovered　to　be　so　numbed　and　dazed　as　a　result　of　the

prolonged　exposure；　that　considerable　time　has　elapsed　before　he

has　been　sufficiently　restored　to　set　forth　the　results　of　his

observations　in　a　coherent；　intelligible　manner　for　the　benefit

of　the　General　Staff。　　Under　these　circumstances　it　is　not

surprising　that　the　most　skilful　and　experienced　aviators　are

generally　reserved　for　this　particular　work。　　In　addition　to　the

natural　accidents　to　which　the　strategical　aerial　observer　is

exposed；　the　dangers　arising　from　hostile　gun…fire　must　not　be

overlooked。　　He　is　manoeuvring　the　whole　time　over　the　enemy's

firing　zone；　where　anti…aircraft　weapons　are　disposed

strategically；　and　where　every　effort　is　made　by　artillery　to

bring　him　down；　or　compel　him　to　repair　to　such　a　height　as　to

render　observation　with　any　degree　of　accuracy　well…nigh

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