the ancien regime-第6章

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of　his　greed；　ambition；　chicane；　arbitrary　tyranny；　a　better　man

abler；　more　energetic；　and　often；　to　judge　from　the　pages　of　De

Tocqueville；　with　far　more　sympathy　and　mercy　for　the　wretched

peasantrythan　was　the　count　or　marquis　in　the　chateau　above；　who

looked　down　on　him　as　a　roturier；　and　let　him　nevertheless　become

first　his　deputy；　and　then　his　master。



Understand　meI　am　not　speaking　against　the　hereditary　principle　of

the　Ancien　Regime；　but　against　its　caste　principletwo　widely

different　elements；　continually　confounded　nowadays。



The　hereditary　principle　is　good；　because　it　is　founded　on　fact　and

nature。　　If　men's　minds　come　into　the　world　blank　sheets　of　paper

which　I　much　doubtevery　other　part　and　faculty　of　them　comes　in

stamped　with　hereditary　tendencies　and　peculiarities。　　There　are

such　things　as　transmitted　capabilities　for　good　and　for　evil；　and

as　surely　as　the　offspring　of　a　good　horse　or　dog　is　likely　to　be

good；　so　is　the　offspring　of　a　good　man；　and　still　more　of　a　good

woman。　　If　the　parents　have　any　special　ability；　their　children　will

probably　inherit　it；　at　least　in　part；　and　over　and　above；　will　have

it　developed　in　them　by　an　education　worthy　of　their　parents　and

themselves。　　If　man　werewhat　he　is　nota　healthy　and　normal

species；　a　permanent　hereditary　caste　might　go　on　intermarrying；　and

so　perpetuate　itself。　　But　the　same　moral　reason　which　would　make

such　a　caste　dangerousindeed；　fatal　to　the　liberty　and　development

of　mankind；　makes　it　happily　impossible。　　Crimes　and　follies　are

certain；　after　a　few　generations；　to　weaken　the　powers　of　any　human

caste；　and　unless　it　supplements　its　own　weakness　by　mingling　again

with　the　common　stock　of　humanity；　it　must　sink　under　that　weakness；

as　the　ancient　noblesse　sank　by　its　own　vice。　　Of　course　there　were

exceptions。　　The　French　Revolution　brought　those　exceptions　out　into

strong　light；　and　like　every　day　of　judgment；　divided　between　the

good　and　the　evil。　　But　it　lies　not　in　exceptions　to　save　a　caste；

or　an　institution；　and　a　few　Richelieus；　Liancourts；　Rochefoucaulds；

Noailles；　Lafayettes　were　but　the　storks　among　the　cranes　involved

in　the　wholesale　doom　due　not　to　each　individual；　but　to　a　system

and　a　class。



Profligacy；　pride；　idlenessthese　are　the　vices　which　we　have　to

lay　to　the　charge　of　the　Teutonic　Nobility　of　the　Ancien　Regime　in

France　especially；　and　（though　in　a　less　degree　perhaps）　over　the

whole　continent　of　Europe。　　But　below　them；　and　perhaps　the　cause　of

them　all；　lay　another　and　deeper　vicegodlessnessatheism。



I　do　not　mean　merely　want　of　religion；　doctrinal　unbelief。　　I　mean

want　of　belief　in　duty；　in　responsibility。　　Want　of　belief　that

there　was　a　living　God　governing　the　universe；　who　had　set　them

their　work；　and　would　judge　them　according　to　their　work。　　And

therefore；　want　of　belief；　yea；　utter　unconsciousness；　that　they

were　set　in　their　places　to　make　the　masses　below　them　better　men；

to　impart　to　them　their　own　civilisation；　to　raise　them　to　their　own

level。　　They　would　have　shrunk　from　that　which　I　just　now　defined　as

the　true　duty　of　an　aristocracy；　just　because　it　would　have　seemed

to　them　madness　to　abolish　themselves。　　But　the　process　of　abolition

went　on；　nevertheless；　only　now　from　without　instead　of　from　within。

So　it　must　always　be；　in　such　a　case。　　If　a　ruling　class　will　not

try　to　raise　the　masses　to　their　own　level；　the　masses　will　try　to

drag　them　down　to　theirs。　　That　sense　of　justice　which　allowed

privileges；　when　they　were　as　strictly　official　privileges　as　the

salary　of　a　judge；　or　the　immunity　of　a　member　of　the　House　of

Commons；　when　they　were　earned；　as　in　the　Middle　Age；　by　severe

education；　earnest　labour；　and　life　and　death　responsibility　in

peace　and　war；　will　demand　the　abolition　of　those　privileges；　when

no　work　is　done　in　return　for　them；　with　a　voice　which　must　be

heard；　for　it　is　the　voice　of　truth　and　justice。



But　with　that　righteous　voice　will　mingle　another；　most　wicked；　and

yet；　alas！　most　flattering　to　poor　humanitythe　voice　of　envy；

simple　and　undisguised；　of　envy；　which　moralists　hold　to　be　one　of

the　basest　of　human　passions；　which　can　never　be　justified；　however

hateful　or　unworthy　be　the　envied　man。　　And　when　a　whole　people；　or

even　a　majority　thereof；　shall　be　possessed　by　that；　what　is　there

that　they　will　not　do？



Some　are　surprised　and　puzzled　when　they　find；　in　the　French

Revolution　of　1793；　the　noblest　and　the　foulest　characters　labouring

in　concert；　and　side　by　sideoften；　too；　paradoxical　as　it　may

seem；　united　in　the　same　personage。　　The　explanation　is　simple。

Justice　inspired　the　one；　the　other　was　the　child　of　simple　envy。

But　this　passion　of　envy；　if　it　becomes　permanent　and　popular；　may

avenge　itself；　like　all　other　sins。　　A　nation　may　say　to　itself；

〃Provided　we　have　no　superiors　to　fall　our　pride；　we　are　content。

Liberty　is　a　slight　matter；　provided　we　have　equality。　　Let　us　be

slaves；　provided　we　are　all　slaves　alike。〃　　It　may　destroy　every

standard　of　humanity　above　its　own　mean　average；　it　may　forget　that

the　old　ruling　class；　in　spite　of　all　its　defects　and　crimes；　did　at

least　pretend　to　represent　something　higher　than　man's　necessary

wants；　plus　the　greed　of　amassing　money；　never　meeting　（at　least　in

the　country　districts）　any　one　wiser　or　more　refined　than　an

official　or　a　priest　drawn　from　the　peasant　class；　it　may　lose　the

belief　that　any　standard　higher　than　that　is　needed；　and；　all　but

forgetting　the　very　existence　of　civilisation；　sink　contented　into　a

dead　level　of　intellectual　mediocrity　and　moral　barbarism；　crying；

〃Let　us　eat　and　drink；　for　to…morrow　we　die。〃



A　nation　in　such　a　temper　will　surely　be　taken　at　its　word。　　Where

the　carcase　is；　there　the　eagles　will　be　gathered　together；　and

there　will　not　be　wanting　to　such　nationsas　there　were　not　wanting

in　old　Greece　and　Romedespots　who　will　give　them　all　they　want；

and　more；　and　say　to　them：　　〃Yes；　you　shall　eat　and　drink；　and　yet

you　shall　not　die。　　For　I；　while　I　take　care　of　your　mortal　bodies；

will　see　that　care　is　taken　of　your　immortal　souls。〃



For　there　are　those　who　have　discovered；　with　the　kings　of　the　Holy

Alliance；　that　infidelity　and　scepticism　are　political　mistakes；　not

so　much　because　they　promote　vice；　as　because　they　promote　（or　are

supposed　to　promote）　free　thought；　who　see　that　religion　（no　matter

of　what　quality）　is　a　most　valuable　assistant　to　the　duties　of　a

minister　of　police。　　They　will　quote　in　their　own　behalf

Montesquieu's　opinion　that　religion　is　a　column　necessary　to　sustain

the　social　edifice；　they　will　quote；　too；　that　sound　and　true　saying

of　De　Tocqueville's：　　｛1｝　〃If　the　first　American　who　might　be　met；

either　in　his　own　country；　or　abroad；　were　to　be　stopped　and　asked

whether　he　considered　religion　useful　to　the　stability　of　the　laws

and　the　good　order　of　society；　he　would　answer；　without　hesitation；

that　no　civilised　society；　but　more　especially　none　in　a　state　of

freedom；　can　exist　without　religion。　　Respect　for　religion　is；　in

his　eyes；　the　greatest　guarantee　of　the　stability　of　the　State；　and

of　the　safety　of　the　community。　　Those　who　are　ignorant　of　the

science　of　government；　know　that　fact　at　least。〃



M。　de　Tocqueville；　when　he　wrote　these　words；　was　lamenting　that　in

France；　〃freedom　was　forsaken；〃　〃a　thing　for　which　it　is　said　that

no　one　any　longer　cares　in　France。〃　　He　did　not；　it　seems　to　me；

perceive　that；　as　in　America　the　best　guarantee　of　freedom　is　the

reverence　for　a　religion　or　religions；　which　are　free　themselves；

and　which　teach　men　to　be　free；　so　in　other　countries　the　best

guarantee　of　slavery　is；　reverence　for　religions　which　are　not　free；

and　which　teach　men　to　be　slaves。



But　what　M。　de　Tocqueville　did　not　see；　there　are　others　who　will

see；　who　will　say：　　〃If　religion　be　the　pillar　of　political　and

social　order；　there　is　an　order　which　is　best　supported　by　a

religion　which　is　adverse　to　free　thought；　free　speech；　free

conscience；　free　communion　between　man　and　God。　　The　more　enervating

the　superstition；　the　more　exacting　and　tyrannous　its　priesthood；

the　more　it　will　do　our　work；　if　we　help　it　to　do　its　own。　　If　it

permit　us　to　enslave　the　body；　we　will　permit　it　to　enslave　the

soul。〃



And　so　may　be　inaugurated　a　period　of　that　organised　anarchy　of

which　the　poet　says：





It　is　not　life；　but　death；　when　nothing　stirs。







LECTURE　IICENTRALISATION







The　degradation　of　the　European　nobility　caused；　of　course；　the

increase　of　the　kingly　power；　and　opened　the　way　to　central

despotisms。　　The　bourgeoisie；　the　commercial　middle　class；　whatever

were　its　virtues；　its　value；　its　real　courage；　were　never　able　to

stand　alone　against　the　kings。　　Their　capital；　being　invested　in

trade；　was　necessarily　subject　to　such　sudden　dangers　from　war；

political　change；　bad　seasons；　and　so　forth；　that　its　holders；

however　individually　brave；　were　timid　as　a　class。　　They　could　never

hold　out　on　strike　against　the　governments；　and　had　to　submit　to　the

powers　that　were；　whatever　they　were；　under　penalty　of　ruin。



But　on　the　Continent；　and　especially　in　France　and　Germany；　unable

to　strengthen　itself　by　intermarriage　with　the　noblesse；　they

retained　that　timidity　which　is　the　fruit　of　the　insecurity　of

trade；　and　had　to　submit　to　a　more　and　more　centralised　despotism；

and　grow　up　as　they　could；　in　the　face　of　exasperating　hindrances　to

wealth；　to　education；　to　the　possession；　in　many　parts　of　France；　of

large　landed　estates；　leaving　the　noblesse　to　decay　in　isolated

uselessness　and　weakness；　and　in　many　cases　debt　and　poverty。



The　systemor　rather　anarchyaccording　to　which　France　was

governed　during　this　transitional　period；　may　be　read　in　that　work

of　M。　de　Tocqueville's　which　I　have　already　quoted；　and　which　is

accessible　to　all　classes；　through　Mr。　H。　Reeve's　excellent

translation。　　Every　student　of　history　is；　of　course；　well

acquainted　with　that　book。　　But　as　there　is　reason　to　fear；　from

language　which　is　becoming　once　more　too　common；　both　in　speech　and

writing；　that　the　general　public　either　do　not　know　it；　or　have　not

understood　it；　I　shall　take　the　liberty　of　quoting　from　it　somewhat

largely。　　I　am　justified　in　so　doing　by　the　fact　that　M。　de

Tocqueville's　book　is　founded　on　researches　into　the　French

Archives；　which　have　been　made　（as　far　as　I　am　aware）　only　by　him；

and　contains　innumerable　significant　facts；　which　are　to　be　found

（as　far　as　I　am　aware）　in　no　other　accessible　work。



The　French　peoplesays　M。　de　Tocquevillemade；　in　1789；　the

greatest　effort　which　was　ever　made　by　any　nation　to　cut；　so　to

speak；　their　destiny　in　halves；　and　to　separate　by　an　abyss　that

which　they　had　heretofore　been；　from　that　which　they　sought　to

become　hereafter。　　But　he　had　long　thought　that　they　had　succeeded

in　this　singular　at