the ancien regime-第8章

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needles　and　sticks；　of　which　the　ants　have　piled　their　nest；　are　a

mass。



The　term；　I　believe；　was　invented　during　the　Ancien　Regime。　　Whether

it　was　or　not；　it　expresses　very　accurately　the　life　of　the　many　in

those　days。　　No　one　would　speak；　if　he　wished　to　speak　exactly；　of

the　masses　of　the　United　States；　for　there　every　man　is；　or　is

presumed　to　be；　a　personage；　with　his　own　independence；　his　own

activities；　his　own　rights　and　duties。　　No　one；　I　believe；　would

have　talked　of　the　masses　in　the　old　feudal　times；　for　then　each

individual　was　someone's　man；　bound　to　his　master　by　ties　of　mutual

service；　just　or　unjust；　honourable　or　base；　but　still　giving　him　a

personality　of　duties　and　rights；　and　dividing　him　from　his　class。



Dividing；　I　say。　　The　poor　of　the　Middle　Age　had　little　sense　of　a

common　humanity。　　Those　who　owned　allegiance　to　the　lord　in　the　next

valley　were　not　their　brothers；　and　at　their　own　lord's　bidding；

they　buckled　on　sword　and　slew　the　next　lord's　men；　with　joyful

heart　and　good　conscience。　　Only　now　and　then　misery　compressed　them

into　masses；　and　they　ran　together；　as　sheep　run　together　to　face　a

dog。　　Some　wholesale　wrong　made　them　aware　that　they　were　brothers；

at　least　in　the　power　of　starving；　and　they　joined　in　the　cry　which

was　heard；　I　believe；　in　Mecklenburg　as　late　as　1790：　　〃Den　Edelman

wille　wi　dodschlagen。〃　　Then；　in　Wat　Tyler's　insurrections；　in

Munster　Anabaptisms；　in　Jacqueries；　they　proved　themselves　to　be

masses；　if　nothing　better；　striking　for　awhile；　by　the　mere　weight

of　numbers；　blows　terrible；　though　aimlesssoon　to　be　dispersed　and

slain　in　their　turn　by　a　disciplined　and　compact　aristocracy。　　Yet

not　always　dispersed；　if　they　could　find　a　leader；　as　the　Polish

nobles　discovered　to　their　cost　in　the　middle　of　the　seventeenth

century。　　Then　Bogdan　the　Cossack；　a　wild　warrior；　not　without　his

sins；　but　having　deserved　well　of　James　Sobieski　and　the　Poles；

found　that　the　neighbouring　noble's　steward　had　taken　a　fancy　to　his

windmill　and　his　farm　upon　the　Dnieper。　　He　was　thrown　into　prison

on　a　frivolous　charge；　and　escaped　to　the　Tatars；　leaving　his　wife

dishonoured；　his　house　burnt；　his　infant　lost　in　the　flames；　his

eldest　son　scourged　for　protesting　against　the　wrong。　　And　he

returned；　at　the　head　of　an　army　of　Tatars；　Socinians；　Greeks；　or

what　not；　to　set　free　the　serfs；　and　exterminate　Jesuits；　Jews；　and

nobles；　throughout　Podolia；　Volhynia；　Red　Russia；　to　desecrate　the

altars　of　God；　and　slay　his　servants；　to　destroy　the　nobles　by

lingering　tortures；　to　strip　noble　ladies　and　maidens；　and　hunt　them

to　death　with　the　whips　of　his　Cossacks；　and　after　defeating　the

nobles　in　battle　after　battle；　to　inaugurate　an　era　of　misery　and

anarchy　from　which　Poland　never　recovered。



Thus　did　the　masses　of　Southern　Poland　discover；　for　one　generation

at　least；　that　they　were　not　many　things；　but　one　thing；　a　class；

capable　of　brotherhood　and　unity；　though；　alas！　only　of　such　as

belongs　to　a　pack　of　wolves。　　But　such　outbursts　as　this　were　rare

exceptions。　　In　general；　feudalism　kept　the　people　divided；　and

therefore　helpless。　　And　as　feudalism　died　out；　and　with　it　the

personal　self…respect　and　loyalty　which　were　engendered　by　the　old

relations　of　master　and　servant；　the　division　still　remained；　and

the　people；　in　France　especially；　became　merely　masses；　a　swarm　of

incoherent　and　disorganised　things　intent　on　the　necessaries　of

daily　bread；　like　mites　crawling　over　each　other　in　a　cheese。



Out　of　this　mass　were　struggling　upwards　perpetually；　all　who　had　a

little　ambition；　a　little　scholarship；　or　a　little　money；

endeavouring　to　become　members　of　the　middle　class　by　obtaining　a

Government　appointment。　　〃A　man；〃　says　M。　de　Tocqueville；　〃endowed

with　some　education　and　small　means；　thought　it　not　decorous　to　die

without　having　been　a　Government　officer。〃　　〃Every　man；　according　to

his　condition；〃　says　a　contemporary　writer；　〃wants　to　be　something

by　command　of　the　king。〃



It　was　not　merely　the　〃natural　vanity〃　of　which　M。　de　Tocqueville

accuses　his　countrymen；　which　stirred　up　in　them　this　eagerness

after　place；　for　we　see　the　same　eagerness　in　other　nations　of　the

Continent；　who　cannot　be　accused　（as　wholes）　of　that　weakness。　　The

fact　is；　a　Government　place；　or　a　Government　decoration；　cross；

ribbon；　or　what　not；　is；　in　a　country　where　self…government　is

unknown　or　dead；　the　only　method；　save　literary　fame；　which　is　left

to　men　in　order　to　assert　themselves　either　to　themselves　or　their

fellow…men。



A　British　or　American　shopkeeper　or　farmer　asks　nothing　of　his

Government。　　He　can；　if　he　chooses；　be　elected　to　some　local　office

（generally　unsalaried）　by　the　votes　of　his　fellow…citizens。　　But

that　is　his　right；　and　adds　nothing　to　his　respectability。　　The　test

of　that　latter；　in　a　country　where　all　honest　callings　are　equally

honourable；　is　the　amount　of　money　he　can　make；　and　a　very　sound

practical　test　that　is；　in　a　country　where　intellect　and　capital　are

free。　　Beyond　that；　he　is　what　he　is；　and　wishes　to　be　no　more；　save

what　he　can　make　himself。　　He　has　his　rights；　guaranteed　by　law　and

public　opinion；　and　as　long　as　he　stands　within　them；　and　（as　he

well　phrases　it）　behaves　like　a　gentleman；　he　considers　himself　as

good　as　any　man；　and　so　he　is。　　But　under　the　bureaucratic　Regime　of

the　Continent；　if　a　man　had　not　〃something　by　command　of　the　king；〃

he　was　nothing；　and　something　he　naturally　wished　to　be；　even　by

means　of　a　Government　which　he　disliked　and　despised。　　So　in　France；

where　innumerable　petty　posts　were　regular　articles　of　sale；　anyone；

it　seems；　who　had　saved　a　little　money；　found　it　most　profitable　to

invest　it　in　a　beadledom　of　some　kindto　the　great　detriment　of　the

country；　for　he　thus　withdrew　his　capital　from　trade；　but　to　his　own

clear　gain；　for　he　thereby　purchased　some　immunity　from　public

burdens；　and；　as　it　were；　compounded　once　and　for　all　for　his　taxes。

The　petty　German　princes；　it　seems；　followed　the　example　of　France；

and　sold　their　little　beadledoms　likewise；　but　even　where　offices

were　not　sold；　they　must　be　obtained　by　any　and　every　means；　by

everyone　who　desired　not　to　be　as　other　men　were；　and　to　become

Notables；　as　they　were　called　in　France；　so　he　migrated　from　the

country　into　the　nearest　town；　and　became　a　member　of　some　small

body…guild；　town　council；　or　what　not；　bodies　which　were　infinite　in

number。　　In　one　small　town　M。　de　Tocqueville　discovers　thirty…six

such　bodies；　〃separated　from　each　other　by　diminutive　privileges；

the　least　honourable　of　which　was　still　a　mark　of　honour。〃

Quarrelling　perpetually　with　each　other　for　precedence；　despising

and　oppressing　the　very　menu　peuple　from　whom　they　had　for　the　most

part　sprung；　these　innumerable　small　bodies；　instead　of　uniting

their　class；　only　served　to　split　it　up　more　and　more；　and　when　the

Revolution　broke　them　up；　once　and　for　all；　with　all　other

privileges　whatsoever；　no　bond　of　union　was　left；　and　each　man　stood

alone；　proud　of　his　〃individuality〃his　complete　social　isolation；

till　he　discovered　that；　in　ridding　himself　of　superiors；　he　had　rid

himself　also　of　fellows；　fulfilling；　every　man　in　his　own　person；

the　old　fable　of　the　bundle　of　sticks；　and　had　to　submit；　under　the

Consulate　and　the　Empire；　to　a　tyranny　to　which　the　Ancien　Regime

was　freedom　itself。



For；　in　France　at　least；　the　Ancien　Regime　was　no　tyranny。　　The

middle　and　upper　classes　had　individual　libertyit　may　be；　only　too

much；　the　liberty　of　disobeying　a　Government　which　they　did　not

respect。　　〃However　submissive　the　French　may　have　been　before　the

Revolution　to　the　will　of　the　king；　one　sort　of　obedience　was

altogether　unknown　to　them。　　They　knew　not　what　it　was　to　bow　before

an　illegitimate　and　contested　powera　power　but　little　honoured；

frequently　despised；　but　willingly　endured　because　it　may　be

serviceable；　or　because　it　may　hurt。　　To　that　degrading　form　of

servitude　they　were　ever　strangers。　　The　king　inspired　them　with

feelings　。　。　。　which　have　become　incomprehensible　to　this　generation

。　。　。　They　loved　him　with　the　affection　due　to　a　father；　they

revered　him　with　the　respect　due　to　God。　　In　submitting　to　the　most

arbitrary　of　his　commands；　they　yielded　less　to　compulsion　than　to

loyalty；　and　thus　they　frequently　preserved　great　freedom　of　mind；

even　in　the　most　complete　dependence。　　This　liberty；　irregular；

intermittent；〃　says　M。　de　Tocqueville；　〃helped　to　form　those

vigorous　characters；　those　proud　and　daring　spirits；　which　were　to

make　the　French　Revolution　at　once　the　object　of　the　admiration　and

the　terror　of　succeeding　generations。〃



This　libertytoo　much　akin　to　anarchy；　in　which　indeed　it　issued

for　awhileseems　to　have　asserted　itself　in　continual　petty

resistance　to　officials　whom　they　did　not　respect；　and　who；　in　their

turn；　were　more　than　a　little　afraid　of　the　very　men　out　of　whose

ranks　they　had　sprung。



The　French　Governmentone　may　say；　every　Government　on　the

Continent　in　those　dayshad　the　special　weakness　of　all

bureaucracies；　namely；　that　want　of　moral　force　which　compels　them

to　fall　back　at　last　on　physical　force；　and　transforms　the　ruler

into　a　bully；　and　the　soldier　into　a　policeman　and　a　gaoler。　　A

Government　of　parvenus；　uncertain　of　its　own　position；　will　be

continually　trying　to　assert　itself　to　itself；　by　vexatious

intermeddling　and　intruding　pretensions；　and　then；　when　it　meets

with　the　resistance　of　free　and　rational　spirits；　will　either　recoil

in　awkward　cowardice；　or　fly　into　a　passion；　and　appeal　to　the

halter　and　the　sword。　　Such　a　Government　can　never　take　itself　for

granted；　because　it　knows　that　it　is　not　taken　for　granted　by　the

people。　　It　never　can　possess　the　quiet　assurance；　the　courteous

dignity；　without　swagger；　yet　without　hesitation；　which　belongs　to

hereditary　legislators；　by　which　term　is　to　be　understood；　not

merely　kings；　not　merely　noblemen；　but　every　citizen　of　a　free

nation；　however　democratic；　who　has　received　from　his　forefathers

the　right；　the　duty；　and　the　example　of　self…government。



Such　was　the　political　and　social　state　of　the　Ancien　Regime；　not

only　in　France；　but　if　we　are　to　trust　（as　we　must　trust）　M。　de

Tocqueville；　in　almost　every　nation　in　Europe；　except　Britain。



And　as　for　its　moral　state。　　We　must　look　for　thatif　we　have　need；

which　happily　all　have　notin　its　lighter　literature。



I　shall　not　trouble　you　with　criticisms　on　French　memoirsof　which

those　of　Madame　de　Sevigne　are　on　the　whole；　the　most　painful　（as

witness　her　comments　on　the　Marquise　de　Brinvilliers's　execution）；

because　written　by　a　woman　better　and　more　human　than　ordinary。　　Nor

with　〃Menagiana；〃　or　other　'ana'sas　vain　and　artificial　as　they

are　often　foul；　nor　with　novels　and　poems；　long　since　deservedly

forgotten。　　On　the　first　perusal　of　this　lighter　literature；　you

wi