a smaller history of greece-第47章

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Of　the　Homeric　poems　the　Iliad　and　the　Odyssey　were　the　most　distinguished　and　have　alone　come　down　to　us。　　The　subject　of　the　Iliad　was　the　exploits　of　Achilles　and　of　the　other　Grecian　heroes　before　Ilium　or　Troy；　that　of　the　Odyssey　was　the　wanderings　and　adventures　of　Odysseus　or　Ulysses　after　the　capture　of　Troy　on　his　return　to　his　native　island。　　Throughout　the　flourishing　period　of　Greek　literature　these　unrivalled　works　were　universally　regarded　as　the　productions　of　a　single　mind；　but　there　was　very　little　agreement　respecting　the　place　of　the　poet's　birth　the　details　of　his　life；　or　the　time　in　which　he　lived。　　Seven　cities　laid　claim　to　Homer's　birth；　and　most　of　them　had　legends　to　tell　respecting　his　romantic　parentage；　his　alleged　blindness；　and　his　life　of　an　itinerant　bard　acquainted　with　poverty　and　sorrow。　　It　cannot　be　disputed　that　he　was　an　Asiatic　Greek；　but　this　is　the　only　fact　in　his　life　which　can　be　regarded　as　certain。　　Several　of　the　best　writers　of　antiquity　supposed　him　to　have　been　a　native　of　the　island　of　Chios；　but　most　modern　scholars　believe　Smyrna　to　have　been　his　birthplace。　His　most　probable　date　is　about　B。C。　850。

The　mode　in　which　these　poems　were　preserved　has　occasioned　great　controversy　in　modern　times。　　Even　if　they　were　committed　to　writing　by　the　poet　himself；　and　were　handed　down　to　posterity　in　this　manner；　it　is　certain　that　they　were　rarely　read。　　We　must　endeavour　to　realise　the　difference　between　ancient　Greece　and　our　own　times。　　During　the　most　flourishing　period　of　Athenian　literature　manuscripts　were　indifferently　written；　without　division　into　parts；　and　without　marks　of　punctuation。　　They　were　scarce　and　costly；　could　be　obtained　only　by　the　wealthy；　and　read　only　by　those　who　had　had　considerable　literary　training。　Under　these　circumstances　the　Greeks　could　never　become　a　reading　people；　and　thus　the　great　mass　even　of　the　Athenians　became　acquainted　with　the　productions　of　the　leading　poets　of　Greece　only　by　hearing　them　recited　at　their　solemn　festivals　and　on　other　public　occasions。　　This　was　more　strikingly　the　case　at　an　earlier　period。　　The　Iliad　and　the　Odyssey　were　not　read　by　individuals　in　private；　but　were　sung　or　recited　at　festivals　or　to　assembled　companies。　　The　bard　originally　sung　his　own　lays　to　the　accompaniment　of　his　lyre。　　He　was　succeeded　by　a　body　of　professional　reciters；　called　Rhapsodists；　who　rehearsed　the　poems　of　others。　　and　who　appear　at　early　times　to　have　had　exclusive　possession　of　the　Homeric　poems。　　But　in　the　seventh　century　before　the　Christian　era　literary　culture　began　to　prevail　among　the　Greeks；　and　men　of　education　and　wealth　were　naturally　desirous　of　obtaining　copies　of　the　great　poet　of　the　nation。　　From　this　cause　copies　came　to　be　circulated　among　the　Greeks；　but　most　of　them　contained　only　separate　portions　of　the　poems；　or　single　rhapsodes；　as　they　were　called。　　Pisistratus；　the　tyrant　or　despot　of　Athens；　is　said　to　have　been　the　first　person　who　collected　and　arranged　the　poems　in　their　present　form；　in　order　that　they　might　be　recited　at　the　great　Panathenaic　festival　at　Athens。

Three　works　have　come　down　to　us　bearing　the　name　of　Hesiodthe　'Works　and　Days；'　the　'Theogony；'　and　a　description　of　the　'Shield　of　Hercules。'　Many　ancient　critics　believed　the　'Works　and　Days'　to　be　the　only　genuine　work　of　Hesiod；　and　their　opinion　has　been　adopted　by　most　modern　scholars。　　We　learn　from　this　work　that　Hesiod　was　a　native　of　Ascra；　a　village　at　the　foot　of　Mount　Helicon；　to　which　his　father　had　migrated　from　the　AEolian　Cyme　in　Asia　Minor。　　He　further　tells　us　that　he　gained　the　prize　at　Chalcis　in　a　poetical　contest；　and　that　he　was　robbed　of　a　fair　share　of　his　heritage　by　the　unrighteous　decision　of　judges　who　had　been　bribed　by　his　brother　Perses。　The　latter　became　afterwards　reduced　in　circumstances；　and　applied　to　his　brother　for　relief；　and　it　is　to　him　that　Hesiod　addresses　his　didactic　poem　of　the　'Works　and　Days；'　in　which　he　lays　down　various　moral　and　social　maxims　for　the　regulation　of　his　conduct　and　his　life。　　It　contains　an　interesting　representation　of　the　feelings；　habits；　and　superstitions　of　the　rural　population　of　Greece　in　the　earlier　ages。　　Respecting　the　date　of　Hesiod　nothing　certain　can　be　affirmed。　　Modern　writers　usually　suppose　him　to　have　flourished　two　or　three　generations　later　than　Homer。

The　commencement　of　Greek　lyric　poetry　as　a　cultivated　species　of　composition　dates　from　the　middle　of　the　seventh　century　before　the　Christian　era。　　No　important　event　either　in　the　public　or　private　life　of　a　Greek　could　dispense　with　this　accompaniment；　and　the　lyric　song　was　equally　needed　to　solemnize　the　worship　of　the　gods；　to　cheer　the　march　to　battle；　or　to　enliven　the　festive　board。　　The　lyric　poetry；　with　the　exception　of　that　of　Pindar；　has　almost　entirely　perished；　and　all　that　we　possess　of　it；　consists　of　a　few　songs　and　isolated　fragments。

The　great　satirist　ARCHILOCHUS　was　one　of　the　earliest　and　most　celebrated　of　all　the　lyric　poets。　　He　was　a　native　of　the　island　of　Paros；　and　flourished　about　the　year　700　B。C。　　His　fame　rests　chiefly　on　his　terrible　satires；　composed　in　the　Iambic　metre。　in　which　he　gave　vent　to　the　bitterness　of　a　disappointed　man。

TYRTAEUS　and　ALCMAN　were　the　two　great　lyric　poets　of　Sparta；　though　neither　of　them　was　a　native　of　Lacedaemon。　　The　personal　history　of　Tyrtaeus；　and　his　warlike　songs　which　roused　the　fainting　courage　of　the　Spartans　during　the　second　Messenian　war；　have　already　been　mentioned。　　Alcman　was　originally　a　Lydian　slave　in　a　Spartan　family；　and　was　emancipated　by　his　master。　　He　lived　shortly　after　the　second　Messenian　war。　　His　poems　partake　of　the　character　of　this　period；　which　was　one　of　repose　and　enjoyment　after　the　fatigues　and　perils　of　war。　　Many　of　his　songs　celebrate　the　pleasures　of　good　eating　and　drinking；　but　the　more　important　were　intended　to　be　sung　by　a　chorus　at　the　public　festivals　of　Sparta。

ARION　was　a　native　of　Methymna　in　Lesbos；　and　lived　some　time　at　the　court　of　Periander；　tyrant　of　Corinth；　who　began　to　reign　B。C。　625。　　Nothing　is　known　of　his　life　beyond　the　beautiful　story　of　his　escape　from　the　sailors　with　whom　he　sailed　from　Sicily　to　Corinth。　　On　one　occasion；　thus　runs　the　story；　Arion　went　to　Sicily　to　take　part　in　a　musical　contest。　　He　won　the　prize；　and；　laden　with　presents；　he　embarked　in　a　Corinthian　ship　to　return　to　his　friend　Periander。　　The　rude　sailors　coveted　his　treasures；　and　meditated　his　murder。　　After　imploring　them　in　vain　to　spare　his　life；　he　obtained　permission　to　play　for　the　last　time　on　his　beloved　lyre。　　In　festal　attire　he　placed　himself　on　the　prow　of　the　vessel；　invoked　the　gods　in　inspired　strains；　and　then　threw　himself　into　the　sea。　　But　many　song…　loving　dolphins　had　assembled　round　the　vessel；　and　one　of　them　now　took　the　bard　on　its　back。　　and　carried　him　to　Taenarum；　from　whence　he　returned　to　Corinth　in　safety；　and　related　his　adventure　to　Periander。　　Upon　the　arrival　of　the　Corinthian　vessel；　Periander　inquired　of　the　sailors　after　Arion；　who　replied　that　he　had　remained　behind　at　Tarentum；　but　when　Arion；　at　the　bidding　of　Periander；　came　forward；　the　sailors　owned　their　guilt；　and　were　punished　according　to　their　desert。　　The　great　improvement　in　lyric　poetry　ascribed　to　Arion　is　the　invention　of　the　Dithyramb。　　This　was　a　choral　song　and　dance　in　honour　of　the　god　Dionysus；　and　is　of　great　interest　in　the　history　of　poetry；　since　it　was　the　germ　from　which　sprung　at　a　later　time　the　magnificent　productions　of　the　tragic　Muse　at　Athens。

ALCAEUS　and　SAPPHO　were　both　natives　of　Mytilene　in　the　island　of　Lesbos；　and　flourished　about　B。C。　610…580。　　Their　songs　were　composed　for　a　single　voice；　and　not　for　the　chorus；　and　they　were　each　the　inventor　of　a　new　metre；　which　bears　their　name；　and　is　familiar　to　us　by　the　well…known　odes　of　Horace。　　Their　poetry　was　the　warm　outpouring　of　the　writers'　inmost　feelings；　and　present　the　lyric　poetry　of　the　AEolians　at　its　highest　point。

Alcaeus　took　an　active　part　in　the　civil　dissensions　of　his　native　state；　and　warmly　espoused　the　cause　of　the　aristocratical　party；　to　which　he　belonged　by　birth。　　When　the　nobles　were　driven　into　exile；　he　endeavoured　to　cheer　their　spirits　by　a　number　of　most　animated　odes；　full　of　invectives　against　the　popular　party　and　its　leaders。

Of　the　events　of　Sappho's　life　we　have　scarcely　any　information；　and　the　common　story　that；　being　in　love　with　Phaon　and　finding　her　love　unrequited；　she　leaped　down　from　the　Leucadian　rock；　seems　to　have　been　an　invention　of　later　times。

ANACREON　was　a　native　of　the　Ionian　city　of　Teos。　　He　spent　part　of　his　life　at　Samos；　under　the　patronage　of　Polycrates；　and　after　the　death　of　this　despot　he　went　to　Athens　at　the　invitation　of　Hipparchus。　　The　universal　tradition　of　antiquity　represents　Anacreon　as　a　consummate　voluptuary；　and　his　poems　prove　the　truth　of　the　tradition。　　His　death　was　worthy　of　his　life；　if　we　may　believe　the　account　that　he　was　choked　by　a　grape…stone。

SIMONIDES；　of　the　island　of　Ceos；　was　born　B。C。　556；　and　reached　a　great　age。　　He　lived　many　years　at　Athens；　both　at　the　court　of　Hipparchus；　together　with　Anacreon；　and　subsequently　under　the　democracy　during　the　Persian　wars。　　The　struggles　of　Greece　for　her　independence　furnished　him　with　a　noble　subject　for　his　muse。　He　carried　away　the　prize　from　AEschylus　with　an　elegy　upon　the　warriors　who　had　fallen　at　the　battle　of　Marathon。　　Subsequently　we　find　him　celebrating　the　heroes　of　Thermopylae；　Artemisium；　Salamis；　and　Plataea。　　He　was　upwards　of　80　when　his　long　poetical　career　at　Athens　was　closed　with　the　victory　which　he　gained　with　the　dithyrambic　chorus　in　B。C。　477；　making　the　56th　prize　that　he　had　carried　off。　　Shortly　after　this　event　he　repaired　to　Syracuse　at　the　invitation　of　Hiero。　　Here　he　spent　the　remaining　ten　years　of　his　life；　not　only　entertaining　Hiero　with　his　poetry；　but　instructing　him　by　his　wisdom；　for　Simonides　was　a　philosopher　as　well　as　a　poet；　and　is　reckoned　amongst　the　sophists。

PINDAR；　though　the　contemporary　of　Simonides；　was　considerably　his　junior：　　He　was　born　either　at；　or　in　the　neighbourhood　of；　Thebes　in　Boeotia；　about　the　year　522　B。C。　　Later　writers　tell　us　that　his　future　glory　as　a　poet　was　miraculously　foreshadowed　by　a　swarm　of　bees　which　rested　upon　his　lips　while　he　was　asleep；　and　that　this　miracle　first　led　him　to　compose　poetry。　　He　commenced　his　professional　career　at　an　early　age；　and　soon　acquired　so　great　a　reputation；　that　he　was　employed　by　various　states　and　princes　of　the　Hellenic　race　to　compose　choral　songs。　He　was　courted　especially　by　Alexander；　king　of　Macedonia；　and　by　Hiero；　despot　of　Syracuse。　　The　praises　which　he　bestowed　upon　Alexander　are　said　to　have　been　the　chief　reason　which　led　his　descendant；　Alexander　the　Great；　to　spare　the　house　of　the　poet　when　he　destroyed　the　rest　of　Thebes。　　The　estimation　in　which　Pindar　was　held　is　also　shown　by　the　honours　conferred　upon　him　by　the　free　states　of　Greece。　　Although　a　Theban；　he　was　always　a　great　favourite　with　the　Athenians；　whom　he　frequently　praised　in　his　poems；　and　who　testified　their　gratitude　by　making　him　their　public　guest；　and　by　giving　him