the unseen world and other essays-第34章

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take　are　comparatively　simple；　and　the　historian　has　before　him　a　straightforward　story。

From　the　dramatic；　or　rather　from　the　epic；　point　of　view；　the　sixteenth　century　is　pre…eminent。　The　essentially　transitional　character　of　modern　history　since　the　breaking　up　of　the　papal　and　feudal　systems　is　at　no　period　more　distinctly　marked。　In　traversing　the　sixteenth　century　we　realize　that　we　have　fairly　got　out　of　one　state　of　things　and　into　another。　At　the　outset；　events　like　the　challenge　of　Barletta　may　make　us　doubt　whether　we　have　yet　quite　left　behind　the　Middle　Ages。　The　belief　in　the　central　position　of　the　earth　is　still　universal；　and　the　belief　in　its　rotundity　not　yet；　until　the　voyage　of　Magellan；　generally　accepted。　We　find　Englandowing　partly　to　the　introduction　of　gunpowder　and　the　consequent　disuse　of　archery；　partly　to　the　results　of　the　recent　integration　of　France　under　Louis　XI。fallen　back　from　the　high　relative　position　which　it　had　occupied　under　the　rule　of　the　Plantagenets；　and　its　policy　still　directed　in　accordance　with　reminiscences　of　Agincourt；　and　garnet；　and　Burgundian　alliances。　We　find　France　just　beginning　her　ill…fated　career　of　intervention　in　the　affairs　of　Italy；　and　Spain；　with　her　Moors　finally　vanquished　and　a　new　world　beyond　the　ocean　just　added　to　her　domain；　rapidly　developing　into　the　greatest　empire　which　had　been　seen　since　the　days　of　the　first　Caesars。　But　at　the　close　of　the　century　we　find　feudal　life　in　castles　changed　into　modern　life　in　towns；　chivalric　defiances　exchanged　for　over…subtle　diplomacy；　Maurices　instead　of　Bayards；　a　Henry　IV。　instead　of　a　Gaston　de　Foix。　We　find　the　old　theory　of　man's　central　position　in　the　universethe　foundation　of　the　doctrine　of　final　causes　and　of　the　whole　theological　method　of　interpreting　naturefinally　overthrown　by　Copernicus。　Instead　of　the　circumnavigability　of　the　earth；　the　discovery　of　a　Northwest　passageas　instanced　by　the　heroic　voyage　of　Barendz；　so　nobly　described　by　Mr。　Motleyis　now　the　chief　geographical　problem。　East　India　Companies；　in　place　of　petty　guilds　of　weavers　and　bakers；　bear　witness　to　the　vast　commercial　progress。　We　find　England；　fresh　from　her　stupendous　victory　over　the　whole　power　of　Spain；　again　in　the　front　rank　of　nations；　France；　under　the　most　astute　of　modern　sovereigns；　taking　her　place　for　a　time　as　the　political　leader　of　the　civilized　world；　Spain；　with　her　evil　schemes　baffled　in　every　quarter；　sinking　into　that　terrible　death…like　lethargy；　from　which　she　has　hardly　yet　awakened；　and　which　must　needs　call　forth　our　pity；　though　it　is　but　the　deserved　retribution　for　her　past　behaviour。　While　the　little　realm　of　the　Netherlands；　filched　and　cozened　from　the　unfortunate　Jacqueline　by　the　〃good〃　Duke　of　Burgundy；　carried　over　to　Austria　as　the　marriage…portion　of　Lady　Mary；　sent　down　to　Spain　as　the　personal　inheritance　of　the　〃prudent〃　Philip；　and　by　him　intolerably　tormented　with　an　Inquisition；　a　Blood…Council；　and　a　Duke　of　Alva；　has　after　a　forty　years'　war　of　independence　taken　its　position　for　a　time　as　the　greatest　of　commercial　nations；　with　the　most　formidable　navy　and　one　of　the　best　disciplined　armies　yet　seen　upon　the　earth。

But　the　central　phenomenon　of　the　sixteenth　century　is　the　culmination　of　the　Protestant　movement　in　its　decisive　proclamation　by　Luther。　For　nearly　three　hundred　years　already　the　power　of　the　Church　had　been　declining；　and　its　function　as　a　civilizing　agency　had　been　growing　more　and　more　obsolete。　The　first　great　blow　at　its　supremacy　had　been　directed　with　partial　success　in　the　thirteenth　century　by　the　Emperor　Frederick　II。　Coincident　with　this　attack　from　without；　we　find　a　reformation　begun　within；　as　exemplified　in　the　Dominican　and　Franciscan　movements。　The　second　great　blow　was　aimed　by　Philip　IV。　of　France；　and　this　time　it　struck　with　terrible　force。　The　removal　of　the　Papacy　to　Avignon；　in　1305；　was　the　virtual　though　unrecognized　abdication　of　its　beneficent　supremacy。　Bereft　of　its　dignity　and　independence；　from　that　time　forth　it　ceased　to　be　the　defender　of　national　unity　against　baronial　anarchy；　of　popular　rights　against　monarchical　usurpation；　and　became　a　formidable　instrument　of　despotism　and　oppression。　Through　the　vicissitudes　of　the　great　schism　in　the　fourteenth　century；　and　the　refractory　councils　in　the　fifteenth；　its　position　became　rapidly　more　and　more　retrograde　and　demoralized。　And　when；　in　1530；　it　joined　its　forces　with　those　of　Charles　V。；　in　crushing　the　liberties　of　the　worthiest　of　mediaeval　republics；　it　became　evident　that　the　cause　of　freedom　and　progress　must　henceforth　be　intrusted　to　some　more　faithful　champion。　The　revolt　of　Northern　Europe；　led　by　Luther　and　Henry　VIII。　was　but　the　articulate　announcement　of　this　altered　state　of　affairs。　So　long　as　the　Roman　Church　had　been　felt　to　be　the　enemy　of　tyrannical　monarchs　and　the　steadfast　friend　of　the　people；　its　encroachments；　as　represented　by　men　like　Dunstan　and　Becket；　were　regarded　with　popular　favour。　The　strength　of　the　Church　lay　ever　in　its　democratic　instincts；　and　when　these　were　found　to　have　abandoned　it；　the　indignant　protest　of　Luther　sufficed　to　tear　away　half　of　Europe　from　its　allegiance。

By　the　end　of　the　sixteenth　century；　we　find　the　territorial　struggle　between　the　Church　and　the　reformed　religion　substantially　decided。　Protestantism　and　Catholicism　occupied　then　the　same　respective　areas　which　they　now　occupy。　Since　1600　there　has　been　no　instance　of　a　nation　passing　from　one　form　of　worship　to　the　other；　and　in　all　probability　there　never　will　be。　Since　the　wholesale　dissolution　of　religious　beliefs　wrought　in　the　last　century；　the　whole　issue　between　Romanism　and　Protestantism；　regarded　as　dogmatic　systems；　is　practically　dead。　M。　Renan　is　giving　expression　to　an　almost　self…evident　truth；　when　he　says　that　religious　development　is　no　longer　to　proceed　by　way　of　sectarian　proselytism；　but　by　way　of　harmonious　internal　development。　The　contest　is　no　longer　between　one　theology　and　another；　but　it　is　between　the　theological　and　the　scientific　methods　of　interpreting　natural　phenomena。　The　sixteenth　century　has　to　us　therefore　the　interest　belonging　to　a　rounded　and　completed　tale。　It　contains　within　itself　substantially　the　entire　history　of　the　final　stage　of　the　theological　reformation。

This　great　period　falls　naturally　into　two　divisions；　the　first　corresponding　very　nearly　with　the　reigns　of　Charles　V。　and　Henry　VIII。；　and　the　second　with　the　age　of　Philip　II。　and　Elizabeth。　The　first　of　these　periods　was　filled　with　the　skirmishes　which　were　to　open　the　great　battle　of　the　Reformation。　At　first　the　strength　and　extent　of　the　new　revolution　were　not　altogether　apparent。　While　the　Inquisition　was　vigorously　crushing　out　the　first　symptoms　of　disaffection　in　Spain；　it　at　one　time　seemed　as　if　the　Reformers　were　about　to　gain　the　whole　of　the　Empire；　besides　acquiring　an　excellent　foothold　in　France。　Again；　while　England　was　wavering　between　the　old　and　the　new　faith；　the　last　hopes　of　the　Reform　in　Germany　seemed　likely　to　be　destroyed　by　the　military　genius　of　Charles。　But　in　Maurice；　the　red…bearded　hero　of　Saxony；　Charles　found　more　than　his　match。　The　picture　of　the　rapid　and　desperate　march　of　Maurice　upon　Innspruck；　and　of　the　great　Emperor　flying　for　his　life　at　the　very　hour　of　his　imagined　triumph；　has　still　for　us　an　intenser　interest　than　almost　any　other　scene　of　that　age；　for　it　was　the　event　which　proved　that　Protestantism　was　not　a　mere　local　insurrection　which　a　monarch　like　Charles　could　easily　put　down；　but　a　gigantic　revolution　against　which　all　the　powers　in　the　world　might　well　strive　in　vain。

With　the　abdication　of　Charles　in　1556　the　new　period　may　be　said　to　begin；　and　it　is　here　that　Mr。　Motley's　history　commences。　Events　crowded　thick　and　fast。　In　1556　Philip　II。；　a　prince　bred　and　educated　for　the　distinct　purpose　of　suppressing　heresy；　succeeded　to　the　rule　of　the　most　powerful　empire　which　had　been　seen　since　the　days　of　the　Antonines。　In　the　previous　year　a　new　era　had　begun　at　the　court　of　Rome。　The　old　race　of　pagan　pontiffs；　the　Borgias；　the　Farneses；　and　the　Medicis；　had　come　to　an　end；　and　the　papal　throne　was　occupied　by　the　puritanical　Caraffa；　as　violent　a　fanatic　as　Robespierre；　and　a　foe　of　freedom　as　uncompromising　as　Philip　II。　himself。　Under　his　auspices　took　place　the　great　reform　in　the　Church　signalized　by　the　rise　of　the　Jesuits；　as　the　reform　in　the　thirteenth　century　had　been　attended　by　the　rise　of　the　Cordeliers　and　Dominicans。　His　name　should　not　be　forgotten；　for　it　is　mainly　owing　to　the　policy　inaugurated　by　him　that　Catholicism　was　enabled　to　hold　its　ground　as　well　as　it　did。　In　1557　the　next　year；　the　strength　of　France　was　broken　at　St。　Quentin；　and　Spain　was　left　with　her　hands　free　to　deal　with　the　Protestant　powers。　In　1558；　by　the　accession　of　Elizabeth；　England　became　committed　to　the　cause　of　Reform。　In　1559　the　stormy　administration　of　Margaret　began　in　the　Netherlands。　In　1560　the　Scotch　nobles　achieved　the　destruction　of　Catholicism　in　North　Britain。　By　this　time　every　nation　except　France；　had　taken　sides　in　the　conflict　which　was　to　last；　with　hardly　any　cessation；　during　two　generations。

Mr。　Motley；　therefore；　in　describing　the　rise　and　progress　of　the　united　republic　of　the　Netherlands；　is　writing　not　Dutch　but　European　history。　On　his　pages　France；　Spain；　and　England　make　almost　as　large　a　figure　as　Holland　itself。　He　is　writing　the　history　of　the　Reformation　during　its　concluding　epoch；　and　he　chooses　the　Netherlands　as　his　main　subject；　because　during　that　period　the　Netherlands　were　the　centre　of　the　movement。　They　constituted　the　great　bulwark　of　freedom；　and　upon　the　success　or　failure　of　their　cause　the　future　prospect　of　Europe　and　of　mankind　depended。　Spain　and　the　Netherlands；　Philip　II。　and　William　the　Silent；　were　the　two　leading　antagonists　and　were　felt　to　be　such　by　the　other　nations　and　rulers　that　came　to　mingle　in　the　strife。　It　is　therefore　a　stupid　criticism　which　we　have　seen　made　upon　Mr。　Motley；　that；　having　brought　his　narrative　down　to　the　truce　of　1609；　he　ought；　instead　of　describing　the　Thirty　Years'　War；　to　keep　on　with　Dutch　history；　and　pourtray　the　wars　against　Cromwell　and　Charles　II。；　and　the　struggle　of　the　second　William　of　Orange　against　Louis　XIV。　By　so　doing　he　would　only　violate　the　unity　of　his　narrative。　The　wars　of　the　Dutch　against　England　and　France　belong　to　an　entirely　different　epoch　in　European　history；a　modern　epoch；　in　which　political　and　commercial　interests　were　of　prime　importance；　and　theological　interests　distinctly　subsidiary。　The　natural　terminus　of　Mr。　Motley's　work　is　the　Peace　of　Westphalia。　After　bringing　down　his　history　to　the　time　when　the　independence　of　the　Netherlands　was　virtually　acknowledged；　after　describing　the　principal　stages　of　the　struggle　against　Catholicism　and　universal　monarchy；　as　carried　on　in　the　first　generation　by　Elizabeth　and　William；　and　in　the　second　by　Maurice　and　Henry；　he　will　naturally　go　on　to　treat　of　the　epilogue　as　conducted　by　Richelieu　and　Gustavus；　ending　in　the　final　cessation　of　religious　wars　throughout　Europe。

The　conflict　in　the　Netherlands　was　indeed　far　more　than　a