bentham-第1章
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Bentham
by John Stuart Mill
London and Westminster Review； Aug。 1838； revised in 1859 in Dissertations and Discussion； vol。 1。
There are two men； recently deceased； to whom their country is indebted not only for the greater part of the important ideas which have been thrown into circulation among its thinking men in their time； but for a revolution in its general modes of thought and investigation。 These men； dissimilar in almost all else； agreed in being closet…students secluded in a peculiar degree； by circumstances and character； from the business and intercourse of the world： and both were； through a large portion of their lives； regarded by those who took the lead in opinion （when they happened to hear of them） with feelings akin to contempt。 But they were destined to renew a lesson given to mankind by every age； and always disregarded to show that speculative philosophy； which to the superficial appears a thing so remote from the business of life and the outward interests of men； is in reality the thing on earth which most influences them； and in the long run overbears every other influence save those which it must itself obey。 The writers of whom we speak have never been read by the multitude； except for the more slight of their works； their readers have been few。。 but they have been the teachers of the teachers； there is hardly to be found in England an individual of any importance in the world of mind； who （whatever opinions he may have afterwards adopted） did not first learn to think from one of these two； and though their influences have but begun to diffuse themselves through these intermediate channels over society at large； there is already scarcely a publication of any consequence addressed to the educated classes； which； if these persons had not existed； would not have been different from what it is。 These men are； Jeremy Bentham and Samuel Taylor Coleridge the two great seminal minds of England in their age。 No comparison is intended here between the minds or influences of these remarkable men： this was impossible unless there were first formed a complete judgment of each； considered apart。 It is our intention to attempt； on the present occasion； an estimate of one of them； the only one； a complete edition of whose works is yet in progress； and who； in the classification which may be made of all writers into Progressive and Conservative； belongs to the same division with ourselves。 For although they were far too great men to be correctly designated by either appellation exclusively； yet in the main； Bentham was a Progressive philosopher； Coleridge a Conservative one。 The influence of the former has made itself felt chiefly on minds of the Progressive class； of the latter； on those of the Conservative： and the two systems of concentric circles which the shock given by them is spreading over the ocean of mind； have only just begun to meet and intersect。 The writings of both contain severe lessons to their own side； on many of the errors and faults they are addicted to： but to Bentham it was given to discern more particularly those truths with which existing doctrines and institutions were at variance； to Coleridge； the neglected truths which lay in them。 A man of great knowledge of the world； and of the highest reputation for practical talent and sagacity among the official men of his time （himself no follower of Bentham； nor of any partial or exclusive school whatever） once said to us； as the result of his observation； that to Bentham more than to any other source might be traced the questioning spirit； the disposition to demand the why of everything； which had gained so much ground and was producing such important consequences in these times。 The more this assertion is examined； the more true it will be found。 Bentham has been in this age and country the great questioner of things established。 It is by the influence of the modes of thought with which his writings inoculated a considerable number of thinking men； that the yoke of authority has been broken； and innumerable opinions； formerly received on tradition as incontestable； are put upon their defence； and required to give an account of themselves。 Who； before Bentham （whatever controversies might exist on points of detail） dared to speak disrespectfully； in express terms； of the British Constitution； or the English Law？ He did so； and his arguments and his example together encouraged others。 We do not mean that his writings caused the Reform Bill； or that the Appropriation Clause owns him as its parent： the changes which have been made； and the greater changes which will be made； in our institutions； are not the work of philosophers； but of the interests and instincts of large portions of society recently grown into strength。 But Bentham gave voice to those interests and instincts： until he spoke out； those who found our institutions unsuited to them did not dare to say so； did not dare consciously to think so； they had never heard the excellence of those institutions questioned by cultivated men； by men of acknowledged intellect； and it is not in the nature of uninstructed minds to resist the united authority of the instructed。 Bentham broke the spell。 It was not Bentham by his own writings； it was Bentham through the minds and pens which those writings fed through the men in more direct contact with the world； into whom his spirit passed。 If the superstition about ancestorial wisdom has fallen into decay； if the public are grown familiar with the idea that their laws and institutions are in great part not the product of intellect and virtue； but of modern corruption grafted upon ancient barbarism； if the hardiest innovation is no longer scouted because it is an innovation establishments no longer considered sacred because they are establishments it will be found that those who have accustomed the public mind to these ideas have learnt them in Bentham's school； and that the assault on ancient institutions has been； and is； carried on for the most part with his weapons。 It matters not although these thinkers； or indeed thinkers of any description； have been but scantily found among the persons prominently and ostensibly at the head of the Reform movement。 All movements； except directly revolutionary ones； are headed； not by those who originate them； but by those who know best how to compromise between the old opinions and the new。 The father of English innovation both in doctrines and in institutions； is Bentham： he is the great subversive； or； in the language of continental philosophers； the great critical； thinker of his age and country。 We consider this； however； to be not his highest title to fame。 Were this all； he were only to be ranked among the lowest order of the potentates of mind the negative； or destructive philosophers； those who can perceive what is false； but not what is true； who awaken the human mind to the inconsistencies and absurdities of time…sanctioned opinions and institutions； but substitute nothing in the place of what they take away。 We have no desire to undervalue the services of such persons： mankind have been deeply indebted to them； nor will there ever be a lack of work for them； in a world in which so many false things are believed； in which so many which have been true； are believed long after they have ceased to be true。 The qualities； however； which fit men for perceiving anomalies； without perceiving the truths which would rectify them； are not among the rarest of endowments。 Courage； verbal acuteness； command over the forms of argumentation； and a popular style； will make； out of the shallowest man； with a sufficient lack of reverence； a considerable negative philosopher。 Such men have never been wanting in periods of culture； and the period in which Bentham formed his early impressions was emphatically their reign； in proportion to its barrenness in the more noble products of the human mind。 An age of formalism in the Church and corruption in the State； when the most valuable part of the meaning of traditional doctrines had faded from the minds even of those who retained from habit a mechanical belief in them； was the time to raise up all kinds of sceptical philosophy。 Accordingly； France had Voltaire； and his school of negative thinkers； and England （or rather Scotland） had the profoundest negative thinker on record； David Hume： a man； the peculiarities of whose mind qualified him to detect failure of proof； and want of logical consistency； at a depth which French sceptics； with their comparatively feeble powers of analysis and abstractions stop far short of； and which German subtlety alone could thoroughly appreciate； or hope to rival。 If Bentham had merely continued the work of Hume； he would scarcely have been heard of in philosophy。 for he was far inferior to Hume in Hume's qualities； and was in no respect fitted to excel as a metaphysician。 We must not look for subtlety； or the power of recondite analysis； among his intellectual characteristics。 In the former quality； few great thinkers have ever been so deficient； and to find the latter； in any considerable measure； in a mind acknowledging any kindred with his； we must have recourse to the late Mr。 Mill a man who united the great qualities of the metaphysicians of the eighteenth century； with others of a different complexion； admirably qualifying him to complete and correct their work。 Bentham had not these peculiar gifts； but he possessed others； not inferior； which were not possessed by any of his precursors； which have made him a source of light to a generation which has far outgrown their influence； and； as we called him； the chief subversive thinker of an age which has long lost all that they could subvert。 To speak of him first as a merely negative philosopher as one who refutes illogical arguments； exposes sophistry； detects contradiction and absurdity； even in that capacity there was a wide field left vacant for him by Hume； and which he has occupied to an unprecedented extent； the field of practical abuses。 This was Bentham's peculiar province： to this he was called by the whole bent of his disposition： to carry the warfare against absurdity into things practical。 His was an essentially practical mind。 It was by practical abuses that his mind was first turned to speculation by the abuses of the profession which was chosen for him； that of the law。 He has himself stated what particular abuse first gave that shock to his mind； the recoil of which has made the whole mountain of abuse totter； it was the custom of making the client pay for three attendances in the office of a Master in Chancery； when only one was given。 The law； he found； on examination； was full of such things。 But were these discoveries of his？ No； they were known to every lawyer who practised； to every judge who sat on the bench； and neither before nor for long after did they cause any apparent uneasiness to the consciences of these learned persons； nor hinder them from asserting； whenever occasion offered； in books； in parliament； or on the bench； that the law was the perfection of reason。 During so many generations； in each of which thousands of educated young men were successively placed in Bentham's position and with Bentham's opportunities； he alo
