bentham-第8章

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nt。　Leaving　such　people　to　discover　their　mistake　as　they　may；　we　shall　expend　a　few　words　in　attempting　to　discriminate　between　the　truth　and　error　of　this　celebrated　theory。　　　　　There　are　three　great　questions　in　government。　First；　to　what　authority　is　it　for　the　good　of　the　people　that　they　should　be　subject？　Secondly；　how　are　they　to　be　induced　to　obey　that　authority？　The　answers　to　these　two　questions　vary　indefinitely；　according　to　the　degree　and　kind　of　civilization　and　cultivation　already　attained　by　a　people；　and　their　peculiar　aptitudes　for　receiving　more。　Comes　next　a　third　question；　not　liable　to　so　much　variation；　namely；　by　what　means　are　the　abuses　of　this　authority　to　be　checked？　This　third　question　is　the　only　one　of　the　three　to　which　Bentham　seriously　applies　himself；　and　he　gives　it　the　only　answer　it　admits　of　Responsibility：　responsibility　to　persons　whose　interest；　whose　obvious　and　recognizable　interest；　accords　with　the　end　in　view　　good　government。　This　being　granted；　it　is　next　to　be　asked；　in　what　body　of　persons　this　identity　of　interest　with　good　government；　that　is；　with　the　interest　of　the　whole　community；　is　to　be　found？　In　nothing　less；　says　Bentham；　than　the　numerical　majority：　nor；　say　we；　even　in　the　numerical　majority　itself；　of　no　portion　of　the　community　less　than　all；　will　the　interest　coincide；　at　all　times　and　in　all　respects；　with　the　interest　of　all。　But　since　power　given　to　all；　by　a　representative　government；　is　in　fact　given　to　a　majority；　we　are　obliged　to　fall　back　upon　the　first　of　our　three　questions；　namely；　under　what　authority　is　it　for　the　good　of　the　people　that　they　be　placed？　And　if　to　this　the　answer　be；　under　that　of　a　majority　among　themselves；　Bentham's　system　cannot　be　questioned。　This　one　assumption　being　made；　his　'Constitutional　Code'　is　admirable。　That　extraordinary　power　which　he　possessed；　of　at　once　seizing　comprehensive　principles；　and　scheming　out　minute　details；　is　brought　into　play　with　surpassing　vigour　in　devising　means　for　preventing　rulers　from　escaping　from　the　control　of　the　majority；　for　enabling　and　inducing　the　majority　to　exercise　that　control　unremittingly；　and　for　providing　them　with　servants　of　every　desirable　endowment；　moral　and　intellectual；　compatible　with　entire　subservience　to　their　will。　　　　　But　is　this　fundamental　doctrine　of　Bentham's　political　philosophy　an　universal　truth？　Is　it；　at　all　times　and　places；　good　for　mankind　to　be　under　the　absolute　authority　of　the　majority　of　themselves？　We　say　the　authority；　not　the　political　authority　merely；　because　it　is　chimerical　to　suppose　that　whatever　has　absolute　power　over　men's　bodies　will　not　arrogate　it　over　their　minds　　will　not　seek　to　control　（not　perhaps　by　legal　penalties；　but　by　the　persecutions　of　society）　opinions　and　feelings　which　depart　from　its　standard；　will　not　attempt　to　shape　the　eduction　of　the　young　by　its　model；　and　to　extinguish　all　books；　all　schools；　all　combinations　of　individuals　for　joint　action　upon　society；　which　may　be　attempted　for　the　purpose　of　keeping　alive　a　spirit　at　variance　with　its　own。　Is　it；　we　say；　the　proper　condition　of　man；　in　all　ages　and　nations；　to　be　under　the　despotism　of　Public　Opinion？　　　　　It　is　very　conceivable　that　such　a　doctrine　should　find　acceptance　from　some　of　the　noblest　spirits；　in　a　time　of　reaction　against　the　aristocratic　governments　of　modern　Europe；　governments　founded　on　the　entire　sacrifice　（except　so　far　as　prudence；　and　sometimes　humane　feeling　interfere）　of　the　community　generally；　to　the　self…interest　and　ease　of　a　few。　European　reformers　have　been　accustomed　to　see　the　numerical　majority　everywhere　unjustly　depressed；　everywhere　trampled　upon；　or　at　the　best　overlooked；　by　governments；　nowhere　possessing　power　enough　to　extort　redress　of　their　most　positive　grievances；　provision　for　their　mental　culture；　or　even　to　prevent　themselves　from　being　taxed　avowedly　for　the　pecuniary　profit　of　the　ruling　classes。　To　see　these　things；　and　to　seek　to　put　an　end　to　them；　by　means　（among　other　things）　of　giving　more　political　power　to　the　majority；　constitutes　Radicalism；　and　it　is　because　so　many　in　this　age　have　felt　this　wish；　and　have　felt　that　the　realization　of　it　was　an　object　worthy　of　men's　devoting　their　lives　to　it；　that　such　a　theory　of　government　as　Bentham's　has　found　favour　with　them。　But；　though　to　pass　from　one　form　of　bad　government　to　another　be　the　ordinary　fate　of　mankind；　philosophers　ought　not　to　make　themselves　parties　to　it；　by　sacrificing　one　portion　of　important　truth　to　another。　　　　　The　numerical　majority　of　any　society　whatever；　must　consist　of　persons　all　standing　in　the　same　social　position；　and　having；　in　the　main；　the　same　pursuits；　namely；　unskilled　manual　labourers；　and　we　mean　no　disparagement　to　them：　whatever　we　say　to　their　disadvantage；　we　say　equally　of　a　numerical　majority　of　shopkeepers；　or　of　squires。　Where　there　is　identity　of　position　and　pursuits；　there　also　will　be　identity　of　partialities；　passions；　and　prejudices；　and　to　give　to　any　one　set　of　partialities；　passions　and　prejudices；　absolute　power；　without　counter…balance　from　partialities；　passions　and　prejudices　of　a　different　sort；　is　the　way　to　render　the　correction　of　any　of　those　imperfections　hopeless；　to　make　one　narrow；　mean　type　of　human　nature　universal　and　perpetual；　and　to　crush　every　influence　which　tends　to　the　further　improvement　of　man's　intellectual　and　moral　nature。　There　must；　we　know；　be　some　paramount　power　in　society；　and　that　the　majority　should　be　that　power；　is　on　the　whole　right；　not　as　being　just　in　itself；　but　as　being　less　unjust　than　any　other　footing　on　which　the　matter　can　be　placed。　But　it　is　necessary　that　the　institutions　of　society　should　make　provision　for　keeping　up；　in　some　form　or　other；　as　a　corrective　to　partial　views；　and　a　shelter　for　freedom　of　thought　and　individuality　of　character；　a　perpetual　and　standing　Opposition　to　the　will　of　the　majority。　All　countries　which　have　long　continued　progressive；　or　been　durably　great；　have　been　so　because　there　has　been　an　organized　opposition　to　the　ruling　power；　of　whatever　kind　that　power　was：　plebians　to　patricians；　clergy　to　kings；　freethinkers　to　clergy；　kings　to　barons；　commons　to　king　and　aristocracy。　Almost　all　the　greatest　men　who　ever　lived　have　formed　part　of　such　an　Opposition。　Wherever　some　such　quarrel　has　not　been　going　on　　wherever　it　has　been　terminated　by　the　complete　victory　of　one　of　the　contending　principles；　and　no　new　contest　has　taken　the　place　of　the　old　　society　has　either　hardened　into　a　Chinese　stationariness；　or　fallen　into　dissolution。　A　centre　of　resistance；　round　which　all　the　moral　and　social　elements　which　the　ruling　power　views　with　disfavour　may　cluster　themselves；　and　behind　whose　bulwarks　they　may　find　shelter　from　the　attempts　of　that　power　to　hunt　them　out　of　existence；　is　as　necessary　where　the　opinion　of　the　majority　is　sovereign；　as　where　the　ruling　power　is　a　hierarchy　or　an　aristocracy。　Where　no　such　point　d'appui　exists；　there　the　human　race　will　inevitably　degenerate；　and　the　question；　whether　the　United　States；　for　instance；　will　in　time　sink　into　another　China　（also　a　most　commercial　and　industrious　nation）；　resolves　itself；　to　us；　into　the　question；　whether　such　a　centre　of　resistance　will　gradually　evolve　itself　or　not。　　　　　These　things　being　considered；　we　cannot　think　that　Bentham　made　the　most　useful　employment　which　might　have　been　made　of　his　great　powers；　when；　not　content　with　enthroning　the　majority　as　sovereign；　by　means　of　universal　suffrage　without　king　or　house　of　lords；　he　exhausted　all　the　resources　of　ingenuity　in　devising　means　for　riveting　the　yoke　of　public　opinion　closer　and　closer　round　the　necks　of　all　public　functionaries；　and　excluding　every　possibility　of　the　exercise　of　the　slightest　or　most　temporary　influence　either　by　a　minority；　or　by　the　functionary's　own　notions　of　right。　Surely　when　any　power　has　been　made　the　strongest　power；　enough　has　been　done　for　it；　care　is　thenceforth　wanted　rather　to　prevent　that　strongest　power　from　swallowing　up　all　others。　Wherever　all　the　forces　of　society　act　in　one　single　direction；　the　just　claims　of　the　individual　human　being　are　in　extreme　peril。　The　power　of　the　majority　is　salutary　in　so　far　as　it　is　used　defensively；　not　offensively　　as　its　exertion　is　tempered　by　respect　for　the　personality　of　the　individual；　and　deference　to　superiority　of　cultivated　intelligence。　If　Bentham　had　employed　himself　in　pointing　out　the　means　by　which　institutions　fundamentally　democratic　might　be　best　adapted　to　the　preservation　and　strengthening　of　those　two　sentiments；　he　would　have　done　something　more　permanently　valuable；　and　more　worthy　of　his　great　intellect。　Montesquieu；　with　the　lights　of　the　present　age；　would　have　done　it；　and　we　are　possibly　destined　to　receive　this　benefit　from　the　Montesquieu　of　our　own　times；　M。　de　Tocqueville。　　　　　Do　we　then　consider　Bentham's　political　speculations　useless？　Far　from　it。　We　consider　them　only　one…sided。　He　has　brought　out　into　a　strong　light；　has　cleared　from　a　thousand　confusions　and　misconceptions；　and　pointed　out　with　admirable　skill　the　best　means　of　promoting；　one　of　the　ideal　qualities　of　a　perfect　government　　identity　of　interest　between　the　trustees　and　the　community　for　whom　they　hold　their　power　in　trust。　This　quality　is　not　attainable　in　its　ideal　perfection；　and　must　moreover　be　striven　for　with　a　perpetual　eye　to　all　other　requisites；　but　those　other　requisites　must　still　more　be　striven　for　without　losing　sight　of　this：　and　when　the　slightest　postponement　is　made　of　it　to　any　other　end；　the　sacrifice；　often　necessary；　is　never　unattended　with　evil。　Bentham　has　pointed　out　how　complete　this　sacrifice　is　in　modern　European　societies：　how　exclusively；　partial　and　sinister　interests　are　the　ruling　power　there；　with　only　such　check　as　is　imposed　by　public　opinion　　which　being　thus；　in　the　existing　order　of　things；　perpetually　apparent　as　a　source　of　good；　he　was　led　by　natural　partiality　to　exaggerate　its　intrinsic　excellence。　This　sinister　interest　of　rulers　Bentham　hunted　through　all　its　disguises；　and　especially　through　those　which　hide　it　from　the　men　themselves　who　are　influenced　by　it。　The　greatest　service　rendered　by　him　to　the　philosophy　of　universal　human　nature；　is；　perhaps；　his　illustration　of　what　he　terms　'interest…begotten　prejudice'　　the　common　tendency　of　man　to　make　a　duty　and　a　virtue　of　following　his　self…interest。　The　idea；　it　is　true；　was　far　from　being　peculiarly　Bentham's：　the　artifices　by　which　we　persuade　ourselves　that　we　are　not　yielding　to　our　selfish　inclinations　when　we　are；　had　attracted　the　notice　of　all　moralists；　and　had　been　probed　by　religious　writers　to　a　depth　as　much　below　Bentham's；　as　their　knowledge　of　the　profundities　and　windings　of　the　human　heart　was　superior　to　his。　But　it　is　selfish　interest　in　the　form　of　class…interest；　and　the　class　morality　founded　thereon；　which　Bentham　has　illustrated：　the　manner　in　which　any　set　of　persons　who　mix　much　together；　and　have　a　common　interest；　are　apt　to　make　that　common　interest　their　standard　of　virtue；　and　the　social　feelings　of　the　members　of　the　class　are　made　to　play　into　the　hands　of　their　selfish　ones；　whence　the　un